Problem 2-1 (15 minutes)
The standard setting process is of great relevance to the financial analyst because it provides insight into the final product of this process, i.e., accounting standards.
The financial analyst, in order to analyze financial statements intelligently, must have a sound understanding of the standards that underlie the preparation of these financial statements. Since financial accounting standards are the result of the standard setting process, the nature of this process affects the soundness and the lack of ambiguity of the standards. The standard setting process is at risk to subversion by special interests and by standard setters trying to accommodate all. For example, if standards are written in such a way so as to satisfy different conflicting interests then they are likely to be "soft," i.e., subject to a wide variety of interpretations. That, in turn, can lead to practice that avoids the letter as well as the spirit of the standard.
Problem 2-2 (15 minutes)
a. Neutrality lies at the heart of reliability--it implies accounting devoid of ulterior motives and devoid of interests other than that of objective and fair presentation and reporting. It is even-handed with respect to the impact of the information on user's behavior.
b. Examples are when accounting slants presentations so as to make financial statements present a financial position in a way superior to that which exists or to present results of operations more favorable than were in fact achieved. The motives for such presentations that lack in neutrality relate to the parties’ self-interests. Cases can be readily drawn from news media such as Business Week.
Problem 2-3 (20 minutes)
a. Under current generally accepted accounting standards, measurement means determination of the cost or net realizable value of an asset or liability.
Determining the original cost of an asset, say, in the purchase of land, involves little more than recording the purchase price in most cases. Measuring the fair value of accounts receivable, however, involves estimating how much will ultimately be collected. Here we deal with probabilities based on experience, and this is a different level of precision in measurement.
b. Many analysts seem to be offended by the precision implied in the accountant's use of the word "measurement." Equity analysts want the measurement to have a link to or relevance to the ultimate valuation by the market place. This is, however, an altogether different level of measurement and estimation. Analysts may start with accounting measurements but they must build on their assessments of how the market will (1) adjust these accounting measurements to its perceptions of relevant valuation factors and (2) value these, e.g., determine what price earnings ratios they will accord to the adjusted earnings.
c. The two measurement objectives are different. Accountants lay no claim to engaging in valuation. They merely provide the raw material for this process. Accounting measurements aim to estimate the most probable cash flows that will ultimately be realized from an asset or be devoted to the repayment of a liability. Measurement is only selectively concerned with the time value of money.
Analysts seek measurements that are relevant to the valuation of the aggregate business enterprise in the context of the market place. Measurement is concerned with the timing of these cash flows and their valuation. In many cases, as a practical matter, it is concerned with the capitalization of the most relevant earnings number. The analyst's measurement starts with that of the accountant and builds on it.
Problem 2-4 (20 minutes)
a. Pure rules of measurement are possible only when the process of measuring is scientific, objective, and generally incontrovertible. In accounting, rules of measurement cannot be "sold" to those who have to live with them solely on that basis. These rules must be made acceptable to a majority of those who must abide by them. It is this requirement that gives them the character of rules of conduct to be abided by. To many, abiding by such rules may involve sacrifices. Hence, the need for acceptability as well as fairness.
b. The process by which acceptability is secured is basically a political process. It requires that those whose concurrence is sought be involved in the decision process, have a voice in the consideration of alternatives, be persuaded that compromises which have to be reached are fair, and recognize the theoretical soundness of the proposed solution.
Purists would argue that accounting is a science and that solutions to questions of accounting standards should be arrived at by the "scientific method" of observation, experimentation, and verification. In the final analysis, accounting is more of a service activity than a service governed by natural law. To the extent that accounting is a science, it is a social science subject to the mores of the society of which it is part.
Problem 2-5 (20 minutes)
a. Society has brought increasing pressure to bear on accountants in its desire to improve the efficiency with which its assets are priced and its capital investment directed. It has also chosen to exploit the notion that corporation activity is an appropriate point at which to extract taxes from the economy and control economic activity.
Aspects of pressure on accountants include the increasing role of securities commissions requiring "full disclosure," the emergence of class action suits, the growing taxation bureaucracy, and the increasing literacy of the populace, including the press, corporate clients, and securities analysts. Indeed, society's developing objectives have made the practice of accounting and auditing increasingly demanding, if not hazardous.
Recent reports and hearings by congressional committees are part of society's pressures on accountants so that it is better served.
b. Accountants' accommodation consists mainly of educating the profession and the public and enlarging the professional membership. Standards boards and research committees are sometimes viewed as devices to protect accountants by providing them an authority with which to counter and modify the thrusts of society.
The accounting profession can enhance its position and at the same time improve its service to society by insisting that, while numbers are not possible without definitions, by recognizing the uniqueness of each enterprise, qualifications and descriptions enhance meaning and reduce possibilities for abuse of numbers and generally applied definitions.
The organized profession's response to congressional action has been to organize politically as well as to promote and promise self reform. Among these measures are the establishment of a Public Oversight Board by the AICPA, and the establishment of Peer Review as well as the institution of continuing Professional Education.
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