COMUNICATION NETWORKSIn our decisio

COMUNICATION NETWORKS
In our decision of the communication model and the downward, upward and lateral flow of communication, we have been focusing on communication between two individuals, such as superior to subordinate or colleague to colleague. When we look beyond two person communication to the linkages among work group, departmental, or organizational members, we are concerned with communication networks, which are systems of communication lines linking various senders and receivers.
The flow of organizational communication is regulated by several factors : the proximity of workers to one another, the rules governing who communicates with whom, the status hierarchy, and other elements of the work situation, such as job assignments and duties (Zahn, 1991). Thus communication usually follows predictable pattern, or networks. Considerable research has been conducted on these networks and the properties associated with each. Five major types of communications networks have been studied in depth (Shaw, 1978; see figure 10.2). the first three are termed centralized networks because the flow is centralized or directed, through specific members. The next two are called decentralized networks, because the communication flow can originate at any point and does not have to be directed through certain central group members. Centralized networks are governed by members status within the organization ; decentralized networks typically are not. Often, decentralized networks are controlled by factors such as proximity of members to one another, or the personal preference of the sender.
Centralized networks
The first centralized communication network, which is known as chain, represents a five members status hierarchy. A message typically originates at the top or at the bottom of the chain and works its way upward or downward through the different links. An example might be a message concerning some changes in the formula for payroll deductions. The director of human resources in the source of the message, which is then passed to the payroll manager, who in turn gives the instructions to the assistant payroll manager, who then tell the payroll supervisor. Finally, the payroll supervisor passes the message along to the clerk who will implement the changes. A message that is to go from the clerk of the human resources as director must follow the same pattern. As you might guess, the chain is a relativity slow process, but it is direct, with all level hierarchy being made aware of the message because it must through each link. A related communication network is the Y (which is actually an upside down Y). the Y also a hierarchical network, representing four levels of status within the organization, but its last link involves communication to more than one person. The inverted Y is a model of the communication network typically involved in a traditional, pyramid shaped organization. The president issues an order to the chief of operation, who then tells the work supervisor. The work supervisor then gathers the bottom line workers and gives them the order. In the other direction, the front line supervisor is responsible for gathering information from bottom line workers that must be sent upward. The chain and the Y networks are very similar in terms of speed of transmission and the formality of who communicates with whom.
The wheel networks involves two status levels : a higher status member (usually a work supervisor) and four lower level members. The higher status member is the hub, or center, through which all communications must pass. In the network, the are no direct communication links between the lower level members. An example might be a sales an sales manager and four sales person out in the field, each of whom receives instructions directly from the manager and then sends information about sales activities back to the manager. However the sales person do not have any direct any contact with one an other, only indirect contact as information is relayed through the supervisor.
Decentralized networks
The circle network , the first of the two decentralized networks, represents communication between members who are immediately accessible to each other, such as workers positioned side by side on an assembly line or in adjacent cubicles. Because any members can initiate a communication and no rules govern the direction in which it is sent, it can be difficult to trace the original source of the message in a circle network. Also, because the message can travel in two directions. The circle network has a fairly quick rate of transmission.
The all channel or comcon, network allow complete freedom among communication links. Any member can freely communicate with any other, and all members are accessible to each other. In all channel networks communication can be rapid, and there is maximum opportunity for feedback. Boards of directors, problem solving task forces, and employees working as a team are examples of these networks.
There has been extensive research of communication networks, most of which has been conducted in laboratory settings. The result of this studies indicate that each of the different networks has different strengths and weaknesses. For example, the centralized networks ( the chain Y, and wheel) are faster and make fewer errors in dealing with simple., repetitive tasks than do decentralized networks. This make sense because the central person through whom all messages must pass can coordinate group activities because that individual has all the information needed to perform the simple tasks. Decentralized networks (circle and all channel), on the other hand, are better at dealing with complex tasks, such as abstract problem solving (Leavitt, 1951; Shaw, 1964). In general, straightforward repetitive tasks, such as assembly or manufacturing work, tend to operate well with a centralized communication network, whereas creative tasks, such as a group working on a product advertising campaign, are best accomplished using a decentralized network. One reason why centralized networks may have difficulty in solving complex problems is because the central people may be subject to information overload. They may have too much information to deal with efficiently. Because all the messages cannot be passed on intact to the various network members efficiently and quickly group performance suffer.
The type of communication network used can also affect the satisfaction of network members. Generally because of the restrictions on who can initiate communication and on who can communicate with whom, members in centralized networks have lower levels of satisfaction than those in decentralized networks (Shaw, 1964). More specifically , in the centralized networks, the persons holding the central position tend to have high levels of satisfaction due to their role, whereas the noncentral members have extremely low satisfaction (Bavelas, 1950)
Some of research on communication networks has been criticized for oversimplifying the communication process. evidence suggests that the differences in speed and efficiency among the various networks may disappear over time, as the group involved learns to adjust to the required communication patterns ( Burgess, 1968). For example, members of decentralized networks may learn to cut down on the amount of member discussion to speed up the decision making process. Because most of the research on communication networks has been conducted in controlled laboratory settings, there is some concern about whether the result of these studies will generalize to communication networks in actual work settings, although the finding do indeed allow us to model ( although simplistically) the communication patterns in work organization.
FORMAL AND INFORMAL LINES OF COMMUNITION : THE HIERARCHY VERSUS THE GRAPIVINE
So far we have been discussing the formal lines of communication, or how organizational members are supposed to communicate with one another. We have also seen that the official line of communication in a organization are illustrated in the company’s organizational chart, or organigram, which is a diagram of the hierarchy. When official messages must be sent up or down the hierarchy, they typically follow the lines shown in the ornigram. The formal lines of communication are usually governed by the organizational status or authority of the different members. However, although every organization possesses formal lines of communication, each also has informal communication lines, known as grapevine. Just as a real grapevine twists and turns, branching out wherever it pleases, the organizational grapevine can follow any course through a network of organizational members. Throughout the workday, messages are passed from one worker to another along the grapevine. Because much of the daily communication that occurs in work organizations is informal, the organizational grapevine is an important element for I/O psychologists to study.
Whereas formal communication lines are represented by the organigram, the informal lines of communication among work group or organizational members are illustrated by the sociogram in effect, the sociogram is a diagram of the organizational grapevine. Sociograms are used to study the informal contacts and communications occurring among organizational members (see Figure 10.3). In studying informal communication networks, workers are surveyed to determine which other organizational members they typically interact with (Monge & Eisenberg, 1987; Stork & Richards, 1992).
Baird (1977) suggested that three factors determine the pattern of communication links that form the grapevine : friendship, usage, and efficiency. In the formal communication network, people pass information on to their friends, which is only natural. We communicate with those people we like and avoid communicating informally with those people we do not like. Friendship is thus perhaps the most important

Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 1:

JARINGAN KOMUNIKASIDalam keputusan kami model komunikasi dan ke bawah, ke atas dan lateral aliran komunikasi, kami telah memfokuskan pada komunikasi antara dua individu, seperti superior untuk subordinate atau rekan untuk rekan. Ketika kita melihat melampaui dua orang komunikasi untuk hubungan antara kelompok kerja, Departemen, atau organisasi anggota, kita prihatin dengan jaringan komunikasi, yang merupakan sistem komunikasi garis-garis yang menghubungkan berbagai pengirim dan Penerima.The flow of organizational communication is regulated by several factors : the proximity of workers to one another, the rules governing who communicates with whom, the status hierarchy, and other elements of the work situation, such as job assignments and duties (Zahn, 1991). Thus communication usually follows predictable pattern, or networks. Considerable research has been conducted on these networks and the properties associated with each. Five major types of communications networks have been studied in depth (Shaw, 1978; see figure 10.2). the first three are termed centralized networks because the flow is centralized or directed, through specific members. The next two are called decentralized networks, because the communication flow can originate at any point and does not have to be directed through certain central group members. Centralized networks are governed by members status within the organization ; decentralized networks typically are not. Often, decentralized networks are controlled by factors such as proximity of members to one another, or the personal preference of the sender.Centralized networksThe first centralized communication network, which is known as chain, represents a five members status hierarchy. A message typically originates at the top or at the bottom of the chain and works its way upward or downward through the different links. An example might be a message concerning some changes in the formula for payroll deductions. The director of human resources in the source of the message, which is then passed to the payroll manager, who in turn gives the instructions to the assistant payroll manager, who then tell the payroll supervisor. Finally, the payroll supervisor passes the message along to the clerk who will implement the changes. A message that is to go from the clerk of the human resources as director must follow the same pattern. As you might guess, the chain is a relativity slow process, but it is direct, with all level hierarchy being made aware of the message because it must through each link. A related communication network is the Y (which is actually an upside down Y). the Y also a hierarchical network, representing four levels of status within the organization, but its last link involves communication to more than one person. The inverted Y is a model of the communication network typically involved in a traditional, pyramid shaped organization. The president issues an order to the chief of operation, who then tells the work supervisor. The work supervisor then gathers the bottom line workers and gives them the order. In the other direction, the front line supervisor is responsible for gathering information from bottom line workers that must be sent upward. The chain and the Y networks are very similar in terms of speed of transmission and the formality of who communicates with whom.The wheel networks involves two status levels : a higher status member (usually a work supervisor) and four lower level members. The higher status member is the hub, or center, through which all communications must pass. In the network, the are no direct communication links between the lower level members. An example might be a sales an sales manager and four sales person out in the field, each of whom receives instructions directly from the manager and then sends information about sales activities back to the manager. However the sales person do not have any direct any contact with one an other, only indirect contact as information is relayed through the supervisor. Decentralized networksThe circle network , the first of the two decentralized networks, represents communication between members who are immediately accessible to each other, such as workers positioned side by side on an assembly line or in adjacent cubicles. Because any members can initiate a communication and no rules govern the direction in which it is sent, it can be difficult to trace the original source of the message in a circle network. Also, because the message can travel in two directions. The circle network has a fairly quick rate of transmission.The all channel or comcon, network allow complete freedom among communication links. Any member can freely communicate with any other, and all members are accessible to each other. In all channel networks communication can be rapid, and there is maximum opportunity for feedback. Boards of directors, problem solving task forces, and employees working as a team are examples of these networks. There has been extensive research of communication networks, most of which has been conducted in laboratory settings. The result of this studies indicate that each of the different networks has different strengths and weaknesses. For example, the centralized networks ( the chain Y, and wheel) are faster and make fewer errors in dealing with simple., repetitive tasks than do decentralized networks. This make sense because the central person through whom all messages must pass can coordinate group activities because that individual has all the information needed to perform the simple tasks. Decentralized networks (circle and all channel), on the other hand, are better at dealing with complex tasks, such as abstract problem solving (Leavitt, 1951; Shaw, 1964). In general, straightforward repetitive tasks, such as assembly or manufacturing work, tend to operate well with a centralized communication network, whereas creative tasks, such as a group working on a product advertising campaign, are best accomplished using a decentralized network. One reason why centralized networks may have difficulty in solving complex problems is because the central people may be subject to information overload. They may have too much information to deal with efficiently. Because all the messages cannot be passed on intact to the various network members efficiently and quickly group performance suffer. The type of communication network used can also affect the satisfaction of network members. Generally because of the restrictions on who can initiate communication and on who can communicate with whom, members in centralized networks have lower levels of satisfaction than those in decentralized networks (Shaw, 1964). More specifically , in the centralized networks, the persons holding the central position tend to have high levels of satisfaction due to their role, whereas the noncentral members have extremely low satisfaction (Bavelas, 1950)Some of research on communication networks has been criticized for oversimplifying the communication process. evidence suggests that the differences in speed and efficiency among the various networks may disappear over time, as the group involved learns to adjust to the required communication patterns ( Burgess, 1968). For example, members of decentralized networks may learn to cut down on the amount of member discussion to speed up the decision making process. Because most of the research on communication networks has been conducted in controlled laboratory settings, there is some concern about whether the result of these studies will generalize to communication networks in actual work settings, although the finding do indeed allow us to model ( although simplistically) the communication patterns in work organization.FORMAL AND INFORMAL LINES OF COMMUNITION : THE HIERARCHY VERSUS THE GRAPIVINESo far we have been discussing the formal lines of communication, or how organizational members are supposed to communicate with one another. We have also seen that the official line of communication in a organization are illustrated in the company’s organizational chart, or organigram, which is a diagram of the hierarchy. When official messages must be sent up or down the hierarchy, they typically follow the lines shown in the ornigram. The formal lines of communication are usually governed by the organizational status or authority of the different members. However, although every organization possesses formal lines of communication, each also has informal communication lines, known as grapevine. Just as a real grapevine twists and turns, branching out wherever it pleases, the organizational grapevine can follow any course through a network of organizational members. Throughout the workday, messages are passed from one worker to another along the grapevine. Because much of the daily communication that occurs in work organizations is informal, the organizational grapevine is an important element for I/O psychologists to study. Whereas formal communication lines are represented by the organigram, the informal lines of communication among work group or organizational members are illustrated by the sociogram in effect, the sociogram is a diagram of the organizational grapevine. Sociograms are used to study the informal contacts and communications occurring among organizational members (see Figure 10.3). In studying informal communication networks, workers are surveyed to determine which other organizational members they typically interact with (Monge & Eisenberg, 1987; Stork & Richards, 1992).Baird (1977) suggested that three factors determine the pattern of communication links that form the grapevine : friendship, usage, and efficiency. In the formal communication network, people pass information on to their friends, which is only natural. We communicate with those people we like and avoid communicating informally with those people we do not like. Friendship is thus perhaps the most important