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Introduction
Earnings management can be categorized into accrual earnings management and real
earnings management, based on whether or not it leads to direct cash flow consequences.
Accrual earnings management is the managerial manipulation of earnings via
accounting estimates and methods, which has no direct impact on cash flows. By
contrast, real earnings management is the earnings manipulation through operational
activities, which directly affects cash flows. Relative to accrual earnings management,
real earnings management has received little attention in the literature. Recently,
Roychowdhury (2006) comprehensively investigates earnings management through
real activities manipulation. He develops empirical models to measure real earnings
management, and documents evidence that managers manipulate earnings by offering
price discounts or more lenient credit terms to increase sales, reducing discretionary
expenditures, or overproducing products to lower cost of goods sold. His findings
indicate that managers usually take three types of real activities manipulation, namely,
sales manipulation, reduction of discretionary expenditures, and overproduction.
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