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IntroductionIn the 21st century, healthcare organisations face many challenges, including increasing costs and demand on services, and new technology. This has resulted in the healthcare environment being one of complexity and change (Huber, 2006). Restructuring continues to occur in an attempt to reduce the economic burden. Furthermore, social and demographic changes have seen healthcare organisations recognise the importance of the role that nurses, the largest group of healthcare professionals, have as both leader and manager within these organisations (Daly et al., 2004; Huber, 2006; Yoder-Wise, 2003). Demand on intensive care unit (ICU) services and the requirements for ICU nurses are expected to increase in future with population growth and ageing. The AHWAC (2002) estimated a shortfall of 537 intensive care nurses in Australia in 2002. This is attributable to an ageing workforce, a reduction in hours worked per week, and lack of replacement of retiring nurses by younger nurses. In the past, younger nurses have been attracted to working in the ICU, for reasons such as the challenge and excitement of working in this demanding area. However, as the number of people entering nursing continues to decline and the nursing workforce continues to age, the number of younger nurses is diminishing, which is a contributing factor to the shortage of ICU nurses (Buerhaus et al., 2000; Cortes, 2004).Conway and McMillan (2002) explored issues related to workplace culture of the Australian ICU. The major issues were an increase in workplace tension, a decrease in job satisfaction and that ICU nurse educators had a responsibility to undertake a leadership role in the ICU in order to address these issues. Tourangeau (2003) states that in the 21st century, we are seeing fewer nurse leader role models within healthcare organisations and that "the pool of current and future nurse leaders is diminishing" (Tourangeau, 2003, p. 624). Effective nurse leadership is linked to having access to opportunity, resources, and information. Nurse leaders with access to these structures are empowered and successful, which leads to healthcare organisations having greater overall achievement and improved retention of nurses (Upenieks, 2002).The ICU nursing shortage is two fold, not only is attracting nurses to work in the ICU problematic, but the high turnover of ICU nurses is a major concern. Future demand on ICU services and the requirements for ICU nurses is expected to increase with population growth and ageing (AHWAC, 2002). The health care demands of the rapidly ageing workforce will impact on nurse recruitment and retention, a "crucial challenge" for all nursing administrators and leaders (Jackson and Daly, 2004, p. 352).Currently in Australia, there is a paucity of research investigating nursing leadership in the adult ICU, from a nursing perspective. The government report by Heath (2002) identified effective nursing leadership as a long-term solution to the current recruitment and retention problems facing the profession. Other research supports the view that leadership is an important characteristic of the ICU nurse unit manager in the promotion of nurse recruitment and retention (Anthony et al., 2005; Boyle et al., 1999).The phenomenon of leadership, as experienced by the nurses, was extracted from their perceptions to create understanding and meaning. The principal research question that guided this study was: What is the meaning of the phenomenon of leadership as experienced by ICU nurses in the adult ICU? For the purpose of this research, leadership was defined as the "use of personal traits and personal power to constructively and ethically influence patients, families and others toward an end point vision or goal" (Yoder-Wise, 2003, p. 2).MethodPhenomenology, a qualitative research method was used for the study. Phenomenology is concerned with the lived experience of individuals and aims to disclose and explore the meaning of the experience (Burns and Grove, 2001; Streubert and Carpenter, 1999). This research method can be both descriptive and interpretive. Giorgi's (1970) descriptive approach was adopted for this study as it describes the participant experience in their own words, that is, to gain insight into meaning that people describe as their experience. This descriptive approach focuses on two aspects, the data, which is obtained through extensive interviews, and the analysis of the data.ParticipantsThe six participants were purposefully selected to articulate their experience of the phenomenon of leadership (Schneider et al., 2004) and were recruited from a Critical Care Department (consisting of both intensive care and cardiac beds) in a public hospital in metropolitan Victoria. The participants had to be registered nurses with a minimum of 5 years experience in an adult intensive care nursing. A postgraduate critical (Intensive) care certificate was also required. The hospital and the university involved in this research granted ethics approval.Data collection and analysisData was obtained by individual face-to-face, in-depth semi-structured interviews with each of the participants. Each interview lasted between 30 and 60min and was audio taped to facilitate accurate transcribing of information. Hand written notes were taken during the interviews, to assist clarification of points raised, and to facilitate the asking of further open-ended questions.Participants were provided with a written copy of their transcribed interview so that they could remove or change any information they had divulged. Second interviews were not required and no data was removed from any of the transcribed interviews. Ethical considerations were addressed, in particular the issues of informed consent, anonymity and confidentiality. Actions taken to ensure credibility and rigour were also discussed.Data was analysed using Giorgi's (1970) four-step bracketing, intuiting, analysing and describing. The first step, bracketing, involved reading the transcribed interviews. The second step, intuiting, involved re-reading of transcripts. This led to the beginning of understanding the phenomenon. The third step, analysing, saw the emergence of themes. The fourth step, describing, communicated the findings in the form of written description, based on the themes extracted from the data.Although the participants differed in their backgrounds, personalities and current roles within the ICU, common themes were reflected in their perceptions and experiences of leadership, and their ability to articulate about the phenomenon of leadership.Findings"Leadership to me is good communication, leading by example, be consistent and stand by your decisions, [and] be positive." (P5)This narrative reflects one participant's perception of leadership in the adult ICU, a view shared by the other participants in this study. Four of the identified themes in this study-Leading by example, communication, ability to think outside the management square, and knowing your staff were consistent with the literature and are inter-related. Yoder-Wise (2003) identified five leadership development tasks to ensure effective leadership and leadership success: selecting a mentor, leading by example, accepting responsibility, sharing the rewards, having a clear vision, and a willingness to grow. Interestingly, each of the participants identified these leadership development tasks during their interviews. Stepping up in times of crisis was the only theme not identified in the literature, although accepting responsibility may be analogous to this theme (Table 1).Leading by exampleLeading by example was the first theme that emerged from the data. Meaning units that led to the interpretation of this theme were knowledge, experience, inspiration, motivation, achieving goals, confidence, influencing, role model, mentor, standards, decision-making, respect, and professionalism. All six participants expressed aspects of this theme during their interview. Leaders in an adult ICU need to be adaptable, confident, and influential. Effective nurse leaders realise that the "most effective and visible way to influence people is to lead by example" (Yoder-Wise, 2003, p. 24). Leading by example, or acting as role model has many facets, and is well documented within the leadership paradigm. Leading by example or role modelling occurs when a role is performed in a manner that colleagues want to emulate or follow, and is demonstrated by actions, style, values, and behaviours. It is associated with positive traits and characteristics such as, showing support and a willingness to listen to others (Daly et al., 2004).One participant's thoughts on leadership are expressed below:"Leadership [it's] guiding. It's part mentoring, well its leading by example, its guiding those staff around you to, to fulfil certain outcomes that you deem are necessary and its also about maintaining a balance within the department...everyone maintain spirits, maintain a lot of the behaviour and the conduct." (P4)This participant also believed that leadership could be demonstrated in their professional role: "I don't think you can expect people to follow you, if you're not doing those things... so with myself, I always wear my uniform, I always show up to work on time." These beliefs are supported by the literature, as nurses are needed to exert professionalism and are being increasingly required to demonstrate leadership (Grossman and Valiga, 2005).The ability to make decisions is expected of nurse leaders (Daly et al., 2004; Grossman and Valiga, 2005; Yoder-Wise, 2003). The skill of making decisions is necessary on a daily basis in the ICU, at all levels of nursing. For the person in charge of the shift, making decisions begins soon after the commencement of the shift, when nurse allocations are attended to and continues throughout the entire day.Nurses are also required to make many
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