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CHAPTER 7 THE SPECIAL CIRCUMSTANCES

CHAPTER 7 THE SPECIAL CIRCUMSTANCES OF DEVELOPING COUNTRIES AND THE APPLICABILITY OF ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS
Despite the increasing use of economic instruments by developing countries, their applicability to developing country conditions continues to be questioned by environmental groups, development
assistance agencies and developing countries themselves. Indeed, much of the technical assistance received by developing countries is skewed towards the use of command and control regulations. The conventional wisdom that economic instruments are of limited applicability to developing countries is based on the argument that their circumstances are radically different from those of developed countries and therefore developed country experience is of limited relevance. The increasing use of economic instruments by developing countries is often dismissed as experimentation by middleincome, newly industrialized economies that is of little relevance to low-income agrarian economies.
The objectives of this chapter are to examine the special circumstances of developing countries that might affect the applicability of economic instruments, either positively or negatively, and to assess the applicability of particular instruments to particular circumstances, especially those of low-income countries.
By definition, developing countries differ from developed countries by their level or stage of
development, as measured by income per capita. This definition of development is by itself
unsatisfactory for inter-country comparison, even in the narrow economic sense. Converting income per capita into purchasing power parity alters significantly the “development” ranking of countries. Further adjustments need to be made for differences in quality of life indicators such as child mortality,life expectancy, literacy, etc., which are not always correlated with income. These adjustments result in further changes in the “development” ranking of countries (see for example UNDP's Human Development Index). Even then, resource depletion and environmental degradation are not accounted for and hence the “development ranking,” even after the purchasing power and quality of life adjustments, is biased against countries that practice resource conservation and environmental protection.
With these caveats in mind, but without a more widely accepted and understood alternative, we use the conventional definition of developing countries as the non-OECD countries, excluding the
transitional economies of Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union and the high-income oilexporting countries such as Brunei, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and the Gulf States. This definition still leaves more than 120 countries ranging from the tiny Pacific Islands to China. The ecological, cultural, and political diversity is at least as wide as the differences in size and geography. Therefore, the special circumstances describe below are generalizations that apply more to some countries than others, but do constitute distinguishing features of developing countries as a group, from the OECD
countries taken also as a group. However, since developing countries are far from a homogeneous
group, a further classification into low- and middle-income countries is appropriate. The latter group is defined to include the newly industrializing economies. Correspondingly, the special features of developing countries discussed below apply par excellence to low-income countries and to a lesser degree, to middle-income countries.
Development Priorities Growth and Distribution
Economic development and poverty alleviation are the top priorities of developing countries, while maintenance of prosperity and of quality of life, through economic stability and environmental protection, is the primary concern of developed countries. A 2% to 3% growth rate, considered an accomplishment among OECD countries, is lamented as a failure among developing economies, which, given 2% to 3% population growth must grow at least that fast to stand still at what is a very unsatisfactory standard of living. Growth rates of 5% to 10% are aspired to by all developing countries but achieved by only a few. Yet high growth rates remain a priority even for those developing countries that are experiencing stagnation or even economic decline (e.g., sub-Saharan Africa), perhaps more so; hence they are unlikely to give high priority to environmental protection unless it is seen as an effective means of escaping stagnation and of achieving high rates of economic growth. This has significant implications for the applicability of economic instruments in general and for the right choice of instruments in particular. First, instruments with applications to natural resource management are of special interest to low-income resource-based economies while instruments of industrial pollution control are of particular interest to newly industrializing countries. Second, the effect of the instrument on economic growth is of primary concern. Instruments that restrict or constrain economic growth conflict with developing country priorities. The instrument must achieve its purpose at the lowest cost possible, and whatever that cost is, it must not be such as to adversely affect the competitiveness of the country's exports as a whole, even if particular exports might be affected.
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CHAPTER 7 THE SPECIAL CIRCUMSTANCES OF DEVELOPING COUNTRIES AND THE APPLICABILITY OF ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS
Despite the increasing use of economic instruments by developing countries, their applicability to developing country conditions continues to be questioned by environmental groups, development
assistance agencies and developing countries themselves. Indeed, much of the technical assistance received by developing countries is skewed towards the use of command and control regulations. The conventional wisdom that economic instruments are of limited applicability to developing countries is based on the argument that their circumstances are radically different from those of developed countries and therefore developed country experience is of limited relevance. The increasing use of economic instruments by developing countries is often dismissed as experimentation by middleincome, newly industrialized economies that is of little relevance to low-income agrarian economies.
The objectives of this chapter are to examine the special circumstances of developing countries that might affect the applicability of economic instruments, either positively or negatively, and to assess the applicability of particular instruments to particular circumstances, especially those of low-income countries.
By definition, developing countries differ from developed countries by their level or stage of
development, as measured by income per capita. This definition of development is by itself
unsatisfactory for inter-country comparison, even in the narrow economic sense. Converting income per capita into purchasing power parity alters significantly the “development” ranking of countries. Further adjustments need to be made for differences in quality of life indicators such as child mortality,life expectancy, literacy, etc., which are not always correlated with income. These adjustments result in further changes in the “development” ranking of countries (see for example UNDP's Human Development Index). Even then, resource depletion and environmental degradation are not accounted for and hence the “development ranking,” even after the purchasing power and quality of life adjustments, is biased against countries that practice resource conservation and environmental protection.
With these caveats in mind, but without a more widely accepted and understood alternative, we use the conventional definition of developing countries as the non-OECD countries, excluding the
transitional economies of Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union and the high-income oilexporting countries such as Brunei, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and the Gulf States. This definition still leaves more than 120 countries ranging from the tiny Pacific Islands to China. The ecological, cultural, and political diversity is at least as wide as the differences in size and geography. Therefore, the special circumstances describe below are generalizations that apply more to some countries than others, but do constitute distinguishing features of developing countries as a group, from the OECD
countries taken also as a group. However, since developing countries are far from a homogeneous
group, a further classification into low- and middle-income countries is appropriate. The latter group is defined to include the newly industrializing economies. Correspondingly, the special features of developing countries discussed below apply par excellence to low-income countries and to a lesser degree, to middle-income countries.
Development Priorities Growth and Distribution
Economic development and poverty alleviation are the top priorities of developing countries, while maintenance of prosperity and of quality of life, through economic stability and environmental protection, is the primary concern of developed countries. A 2% to 3% growth rate, considered an accomplishment among OECD countries, is lamented as a failure among developing economies, which, given 2% to 3% population growth must grow at least that fast to stand still at what is a very unsatisfactory standard of living. Growth rates of 5% to 10% are aspired to by all developing countries but achieved by only a few. Yet high growth rates remain a priority even for those developing countries that are experiencing stagnation or even economic decline (e.g., sub-Saharan Africa), perhaps more so; hence they are unlikely to give high priority to environmental protection unless it is seen as an effective means of escaping stagnation and of achieving high rates of economic growth. This has significant implications for the applicability of economic instruments in general and for the right choice of instruments in particular. First, instruments with applications to natural resource management are of special interest to low-income resource-based economies while instruments of industrial pollution control are of particular interest to newly industrializing countries. Second, the effect of the instrument on economic growth is of primary concern. Instruments that restrict or constrain economic growth conflict with developing country priorities. The instrument must achieve its purpose at the lowest cost possible, and whatever that cost is, it must not be such as to adversely affect the competitiveness of the country's exports as a whole, even if particular exports might be affected.
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BAB 7 THE KEADAAN KHUSUS NEGARA BERKEMBANG DAN PENERAPAN INSTRUMEN EKONOMI
Meskipun meningkatnya penggunaan instrumen ekonomi negara-negara berkembang, penerapan mereka untuk mengembangkan kondisi negara terus dipertanyakan oleh kelompok-kelompok lingkungan, pengembangan
lembaga bantuan dan negara-negara berkembang sendiri. Memang, sebagian besar bantuan teknik yang diterima negara-negara berkembang miring terhadap penggunaan perintah dan kontrol peraturan. Kebijaksanaan konvensional bahwa instrumen ekonomi dari penerapan terbatas pada negara-negara berkembang didasarkan pada argumen bahwa keadaan mereka sangat berbeda dari orang-orang dari negara-negara maju dan karenanya mengembangkan pengalaman negara adalah relevansi terbatas. Meningkatnya penggunaan instrumen ekonomi negara-negara berkembang sering dianggap sebagai eksperimen oleh middleincome, negara industri baru yang sedikit relevansi dengan berpenghasilan rendah ekonomi agraria.
Tujuan dari bab ini adalah untuk memeriksa keadaan khusus dari negara-negara berkembang yang mungkin mempengaruhi penerapan instrumen ekonomi, baik positif atau negatif, dan untuk menilai penerapan instrumen khusus untuk keadaan khusus, terutama dari negara-negara berpenghasilan rendah.
Menurut definisi, negara-negara berkembang berbeda dari negara maju menurut tingkat atau tahap mereka
pembangunan, yang diukur dengan pendapatan per kapita. Definisi pembangunan dengan sendirinya
tidak memuaskan untuk perbandingan antar negara, bahkan dalam arti ekonomi yang sempit. Konversi pendapatan per kapita dalam daya beli secara signifikan mengubah "pembangunan" peringkat negara-negara. Penyesuaian lebih lanjut perlu dilakukan untuk perbedaan kualitas indikator kehidupan seperti kematian anak, harapan hidup, melek huruf, dan lain-lain, yang tidak selalu berkorelasi dengan pendapatan. Penyesuaian ini menghasilkan perubahan lebih lanjut dalam "pembangunan" peringkat negara-negara (lihat Indeks Pembangunan Manusia contoh UNDP). Bahkan kemudian, penipisan sumber daya dan degradasi lingkungan tidak diperhitungkan dan karenanya "ranking pembangunan," bahkan setelah daya beli dan kualitas penyesuaian hidup, bias terhadap negara-negara yang mempraktekkan konservasi sumber daya dan perlindungan lingkungan.
Dengan peringatan ini dalam pikiran, tetapi tanpa alternatif lebih luas diterima dan dipahami, kita menggunakan definisi konvensional dari negara-negara berkembang sebagai negara-negara non-OECD, tidak termasuk
ekonomi transisi Eropa Timur dan bekas Uni Soviet dan negara-negara oilexporting berpenghasilan tinggi seperti Brunei, Kuwait, Saudi Saudi, dan negara-negara Teluk. Definisi ini masih menyisakan lebih dari 120 negara mulai dari Kepulauan Pasifik kecil ke China. Keragaman ekologi, budaya, dan politik setidaknya selebar perbedaan ukuran dan geografi. Oleh karena itu, keadaan khusus menggambarkan di bawah ini adalah generalisasi yang berlaku lebih ke beberapa negara daripada yang lain, tetapi merupakan ciri khas dari negara-negara berkembang sebagai sebuah kelompok, dari OECD
negara diambil juga sebagai sebuah kelompok. Namun, karena negara-negara berkembang jauh dari homogen
kelompok, klasifikasi lebih jauh ke negara-negara berpenghasilan rendah dan menengah adalah tepat. Kelompok terakhir ini didefinisikan untuk memasukkan ekonomi industri baru. Sejalan dengan itu, fitur-fitur khusus dari negara-negara berkembang dibahas di bawah par excellence berlaku untuk negara-negara berpenghasilan rendah dan untuk tingkat yang lebih rendah, untuk negara-negara berpenghasilan menengah.
Pengembangan Pertumbuhan Prioritas dan Distribusi
Pembangunan ekonomi dan pengentasan kemiskinan merupakan prioritas utama dari negara-negara berkembang, sementara pemeliharaan kemakmuran dan kualitas hidup, melalui stabilitas ekonomi dan perlindungan lingkungan, adalah perhatian utama dari negara-negara maju. A 2% sampai 3% tingkat pertumbuhan, dianggap sebagai prestasi antara negara-negara OECD, yang menyesalkan sebagai kegagalan antara negara berkembang, yang, mengingat pertumbuhan penduduk 2% sampai 3% harus tumbuh minimal yang cepat untuk berdiri diam pada apa yang sangat tidak memuaskan standar hidup. Tingkat pertumbuhan sebesar 5% sampai 10% yang dicita-citakan oleh semua negara-negara berkembang, tetapi dicapai dengan hanya beberapa. Namun tingkat pertumbuhan yang tinggi tetap menjadi prioritas bahkan untuk negara-negara berkembang yang mengalami stagnasi atau bahkan penurunan ekonomi (misalnya, sub-Sahara Afrika), mungkin lebih; maka mereka tidak mungkin untuk memberikan prioritas tinggi untuk perlindungan lingkungan kecuali dipandang sebagai cara yang efektif untuk keluar dari stagnasi dan mencapai tingkat pertumbuhan ekonomi yang tinggi. Hal ini memiliki implikasi signifikan bagi penerapan instrumen ekonomi secara umum dan untuk pilihan yang tepat instrumen pada khususnya. Pertama, instrumen dengan aplikasi untuk pengelolaan sumber daya alam yang menarik khusus untuk ekonomi berbasis sumber daya berpenghasilan rendah sedangkan instrumen pengendalian pencemaran industri yang menarik bagi negara-negara industri baru. Kedua, efek dari instrumen pertumbuhan ekonomi menjadi perhatian utama. Instrumen yang membatasi atau menghambat konflik pertumbuhan ekonomi dengan mengembangkan prioritas negara. Instrumen harus mencapai tujuannya dengan biaya serendah mungkin, dan apa pun biaya yang, tidak harus seperti untuk mempengaruhi daya saing ekspor negara itu secara keseluruhan, bahkan jika ekspor tertentu mungkin akan terpengaruh.
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