Language Skills There is a logical consensus with regard to the positi terjemahan - Language Skills There is a logical consensus with regard to the positi Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

Language Skills There is a logical

Language Skills
There is a logical consensus with regard to the positive relationship between language skills and international assignee adjustment (e.g., Abe & Wiseman, 1983; Church, 1982; Cui & Van den Berg, 1991). There is some disagreement, however, to the relative importance of language compared to other factors, such as personality characteristics (e.g., Benson, 1978; Cui & van den Berg, 1991; Dinges, 1983). The disagreement in the importance of language skills has its roots in whether interpersonal contact between people from different cultures leads to increased cultural understanding. Those who support contact theory believe that language skills, given that they are necessary for communication, are critical for cross-cultural adjustment. Others (e.g., Cui & Van den Berg, 1991) suggest that merely interacting with host nationals is not enough to produce cross-cultural adjustment. They suggest that cross-cultural adjustment only occurs when international assignees have the cultural empathy to be open to different norms and fully acceptant of their host cultures (Cui & Van den Berg, 1991). In other words, one could both speak the host language fluently and know the "correct" behaviors to display, and yet only superficially be immersed in the host culture (Cui & Van den Berg, 1991). Since it would be difficult for the opposite to be true (i.e., that one could be immersed in a culture without language skills), basic language skills should, at very least, be a minimum precondition for success as an international assignee. At a minimum, in most circumstances an attempt should be made to find a qualified candidate with language skills – while for some positions the language skills may be more critical than with others.

Prior International Experience
From a social learning perspective, the more contact international assignees have with host nationals and the host culture, the greater their cross-cultural adjustment (Bochner, Hutnik, & Furnham, 1986; Bochner, Mcleod, & Lin, 1971; Brein & David, 1971; Brislin, 1981; Guthrie, 1975). For example, past research has found that having friendships with host nationals greatly improves international assignees' ability to learn culturally appropriate social skills and behaviors (Searle & Ward, 1990). From this perspective, more prior experience with the host culture should produce greater cross-cultural adjustment. On the other hand, the social cognitive theorists contend that prior foreign experience with the host culture is positively related to adjustment provided that the experience does not serve to reinforce previously held stereotypical beliefs or foster negative, unrealistic expectations of the foreign culture. Social cognitive proponents agree that there is a direct relationship between foreign experience and cross-cultural adjustment when the experience provides an accurate and realistic representation of the host countries' norms, customs, values, etc but the empirical evidence is inconclusive – the relationship between previous international experience and cross-cultural adjustment is more complex as is commonly believed. There is some evidence that previous experience abroad does not always facilitate adjustment to a new expatriate environment (e.g., Black & Gregersen, 1991; Cui & Awa, 1992; Dunbar, 1992; Selmer, 2002). A recent study by Takeuchi, Tesluk, Yun, & Lepak (in-press), however, found support for unique moderating effects of past international experiences on the relationship between current assignment tenure and general and work adjustment.

Process Issues for Selecting International Assignees
There are three key process issues in the research literature regarding international assignee selection. The first is the application of realistic previews to international assignments to help create realistic expectations during (or prior to) selection. The second is the concept of a formal self-selection process which enables international assignee candidates to determine whether the assignment is right for his or her personal situation, family situation, career stage, etc. The third is traditional candidate assessment that would include many of the dimensions identified in the previous section (personality, language skills, and past experience) in a structured organizational selection program. Each of these three international assignment process issues are discussed in greater detail below.

Realistic Previews for International Assignments
Preconceived and accurate expectations prior to an international assignment have been shown to influence the international assignment in many important ways (Caligiuri & Phillips, 2003; Searle & Ward, 1990; Weissman & Furnham, 1987). Studies comparing international assignees expectations prior to going abroad and their actual experience after relocation suggest that having moderately accurate expectations facilitates cross-cultural adjustment (Searle & Ward, 1990; Weissman & Furnham, 1987). Caligiuri and Phillips (2003) found that providing realistic previews prior to international assignments did not change candidates’ interest in possible assignments, but did increase candidates’ self-efficacy for an international assignment. This self-efficacy, in turn, could influence the outcome of the international assignment.
Both research and practice suggest that in the selection phase (or prior to it) it is useful for firms to provide information, even informally, to assist candidates in making realistic decisions on whether an assignment is right for them and to help them form realistic expectations about a possible international assignment (Black, Gregersen, & Mendenhall, 1992; Caligiuri & Phillips, 2003; Tung, 1988). Many firms have pre-selection programs which pair repatriates with international assignee candidates to give international assignees the opportunity to form realistic expectations (Black, Gregersen, & Mendenhall, 1992).

Self-Selection
Given that the demographic profiles and personal situations of the international assignee candidates will vary, self-assessment (or self-selection) has been found to be an effective method for encouraging realistic previews in a tailored and self-directed way (Caligiuri & Phillips, 2003). For example, an unmarried person who is a candidate for an international assignment might have a different set of concerns, compared to a married candidate with a family (Caligiuri, Hyland, Joshi, & Bross, 1998). Likewise, given the many personality characteristics related to crosscultural adjustment, people who possess different personality characteristics may be differentially suited for certain types of international assignments (Caligiuri 2000a; 2000b; Dalton & Wilson, 2000; Ones & Viswesvaran, 1999, 1997).
Self-assessment provides a structured method for international assignment candidates to actively self-assess their fit with the personality and lifestyle requirements of the international assignment (Caligiuri & Phillips, 2003). Effective self-selection tools enable international assignee candidates to critically evaluate themselves on dimensions, such as personality and individual characteristics, career issues, and family issues (including issues of spouses and children). Self-selection instruments, in a structured way, help employees make a thoroughly informed decision about whether to accept an international assignment (Caligiuri & Phillips, 2003).
Firms using self-assessment tools have found that this step fosters the creation of a candidate pool of potential international assignees. This candidate pool can be organized to include information, such as the availability of the employee (when and to what countries), languages the employee speaks, countries preferred, technical knowledge, skills, and abilities, etc. The information retained based on self-assessment should be repeated and continually updated as much of the information (other than personality) can change over time. For example, language skills can diminish if not used, family situations change, etc.
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Keterampilan bahasa Ada konsensus Logis berkaitan dengan hubungan positif antara kemampuan bahasa dan diberi tugas internasional penyesuaian (misalnya, Abe & Wiseman, 1983; Gereja, 1982; Cui & Van den Berg, 1991). Ada beberapa ketidaksepakatan, namun, relatif pentingnya bahasa dibandingkan dengan faktor-faktor lain, seperti karakteristik kepribadian (misalnya, Benson, 1978; Cui & van den Berg, 1991; Dinges, 1983). Perbedaan dalam pentingnya keterampilan bahasa berakar di Apakah interpersonal kontak antara orang-orang dari berbagai budaya yang mengarah ke peningkatan pemahaman budaya. Mereka yang mendukung teori kontak percaya bahwa kemampuan bahasa, mengingat bahwa mereka perlu untuk komunikasi, sangat penting untuk penyesuaian lintas budaya. Lain-lain (misalnya, Cui & Van den Berg, 1991) menyarankan bahwa hanya berinteraksi dengan warga negara tuan rumah ini tidak cukup untuk menghasilkan penyesuaian lintas budaya. Mereka menyarankan bahwa penyesuaian Antarbudaya hanya terjadi ketika internasional assignees memiliki empati budaya untuk bersikap terbuka untuk norma-norma yang berbeda dan sepenuhnya anatar budaya tuan rumah mereka (Cui & Van den Berg, 1991). Dengan kata lain, satu bisa kedua berbicara bahasa host dengan lancar dan tahu perilaku yang "benar" untuk menampilkan, dan belum hanya dangkal menjadi tenggelam dalam budaya host (Cui & Van den Berg, 1991). Karena akan sulit untuk sebaliknya benar (yaitu, bahwa seseorang bisa menjadi tenggelam dalam budaya tanpa keterampilan bahasa), atas dasar kemampuan bahasa, di sangat paling tidak, harus minimal prasyarat untuk sukses sebagai pengalihan internasional. Minimal, di sebagian besar keadaan upaya harus dilakukan untuk menemukan kandidat yang terbaik dengan keterampilan bahasa-sementara untuk beberapa posisi keterampilan bahasa mungkin lebih penting daripada dengan orang lain.Pengalaman internasional Dari perspektif pembelajaran sosial, assignees internasional lebih kontak memiliki dengan warga negara tuan rumah dan budaya host, semakin besar mereka Antarbudaya penyesuaian (Bochner, Hutnik, & Furnham, 1986; Bochner, Mcleod, & Lin, 1971; Brein & David, 1971; Brislin, 1981; Guthrie, 1975). Sebagai contoh, penelitian sebelumnya telah menemukan bahwa memiliki persahabatan dengan negara tuan rumah sangat meningkatkan kemampuan internasional assignees untuk belajar keterampilan sosial yang tepat secara budaya dan perilaku (Searle & Ward, 1990). Dari perspektif ini, lebih banyak pengalaman dengan budaya tuan rumah harus menghasilkan penyesuaian lintas budaya yang lebih besar. Di sisi lain, teori kognitif sosial berpendapat bahwa pengalaman luar negeri dengan tuan rumah budaya positif berhubungan dengan penyesuaian asalkan pengalaman tidak melayani untuk memperkuat sebelumnya memegang keyakinan stereotip atau mendorong negatif, tidak realistis harapan budaya asing. Sosial kognitif pendukung setuju bahwa ada hubungan langsung antara pengalaman luar negeri dan penyesuaian Antarbudaya ketika pengalaman menyediakan representasi akurat dan realistis norma-norma negara tuan rumah, Bea Cukai, nilai-nilai, dll tetapi bukti empiris meyakinkan-hubungan antara pengalaman internasional dan lintas budaya penyesuaian lebih kompleks seperti lazimnya dipercayai. Ada beberapa bukti bahwa pengalaman sebelumnya di luar negeri tidak selalu memudahkan penyesuaian terhadap lingkungan pendatang baru (misalnya, hitam & Gregersen, 1991; Cui & Awa, 1992; Dunbar, 1992; Selmer, 2002). Baru-baru belajar oleh Takeuchi, Tesluk, Yun, & Lepak (di-press), namun, menemukan dukungan untuk efek pengaruh unik pengalaman internasional di masa lalu tentang hubungan antara jabatan tugas saat ini dan Umum dan penyesuaian kerja.Masalah proses untuk memilih Assignees internasional Ada tiga masalah proses utama dalam literatur penelitian mengenai pilihan pengalihan internasional. Yang pertama adalah aplikasi realistis preview untuk tugas-tugas internasional untuk membantu menciptakan harapan yang realistis selama (atau sebelum) pilihan. Yang kedua adalah konsep sebuah proses formal pilihan diri yang memungkinkan kandidat internasional diberi tugas untuk menentukan apakah tugas tepat untuk nya situasi pribadi, situasi keluarga, karir panggung, dll. Yang ketiga adalah penilaian tradisional calon yang akan mencakup banyak dimensi diidentifikasi di bagian sebelumnya (kepribadian, keterampilan bahasa, dan pengalaman masa lalu) dalam program pilihan organisasi yang terstruktur. Setiap dari penugasan internasional proses masalah ini dibahas secara lebih rinci di bawah ini.Realistis preview untuk tugas-tugas internasionalHarapan yang terbentuk sebelumnya dan akurat sebelum penugasan internasional telah ditunjukkan untuk mempengaruhi penugasan internasional dalam banyak cara yang penting (Caligiuri & Phillips, 2003; Searle & Ward, 1990; Weissman & Furnham, 1987). Studi membandingkan internasional assignees harapan sebelum pergi ke luar negeri dan pengalaman mereka sebenarnya setelah relokasi menyarankan bahwa memiliki cukup akurat harapan memfasilitasi Antarbudaya penyesuaian (Searle & Ward, 1990; Weissman & Furnham, 1987). Caligiuri dan Phillips (2003) menemukan bahwa menyediakan realistis preview sebelum internasional tugas tidak mengubah kandidat minatnya untuk mungkin tugas, tetapi meningkatkan kandidat diri-khasiat untuk penugasan internasional. Kemanjuran diri ini, pada gilirannya, bisa mempengaruhi hasil penetapan internasional. Praktek dan penelitian menunjukkan bahwa dalam seleksi (atau sebelumnya) itu berguna bagi perusahaan-perusahaan untuk memberikan informasi, bahkan informal, untuk membantu calon dalam membuat keputusan yang realistis pada apakah tugas tepat bagi mereka dan untuk membantu mereka bentuk harapan yang realistis tentang penugasan internasional mungkin (hitam, Gregersen, & Mendenhall, 1992; Caligiuri & Phillips, 2003; Tung, 1988). Banyak perusahaan memiliki program pra-seleksi pasangan yang repatriates dengan pengalihan internasional calon assignees internasional memberikan kesempatan kepada bentuk harapan yang realistis (hitam, Gregersen, & Mendenhall, 1992).Pemilihan diri sendiri Mengingat bahwa profil demografis dan situasi pribadi calon diberi tugas internasional akan bervariasi, penilaian diri (atau pilihan diri) telah ditemukan untuk menjadi metode yang efektif untuk mendorong preview realistis dalam cara yang disesuaikan dan mandiri (Caligiuri & Phillips, 2003). Misalnya, orang yang tidak menikah yang adalah kandidat untuk penugasan internasional mungkin memiliki set yang berbeda masalah, dibandingkan dengan calon menikah dengan keluarga (Caligiuri, Hyland, Joshi, & Bros, 1998). Demikian juga, mengingat karakteristik kepribadian yang berkaitan dengan penyesuaian crosscultural, orang-orang yang memiliki kepribadian yang berbeda karakteristik mungkin diferensial cocok untuk beberapa jenis tugas internasional (Caligiuri 2000a; 2000b; Dalton & Wilson, 2000; Orang-orang & Viswesvaran, 1999, 1997). Penilaian diri menyediakan metode yang terstruktur untuk calon penugasan internasional untuk aktif menilai diri mereka cocok dengan kepribadian dan gaya hidup persyaratan penetapan internasional (Caligiuri & Phillips, 2003). Alat-alat pilihan diri efektif memungkinkan calon internasional diberi tugas untuk kritis mengevaluasi diri pada dimensi, kepribadian dan karakteristik, karir isu-isu dan masalah-masalah keluarga (termasuk isu-isu pasangan dan anak-anak). Instrumen pemilihan diri sendiri, dengan cara terstruktur, membantu karyawan dalam membuat keputusan secara menyeluruh tentang apakah akan menerima penugasan internasional (Caligiuri & Phillips, 2003). Perusahaan-perusahaan yang menggunakan alat-alat penilaian diri telah menemukan bahwa langkah ini mendorong penciptaan kolam calon potensial assignees internasional. Kolam calon ini dapat diatur untuk menyertakan informasi, seperti ketersediaan karyawan (Kapan dan apa negara), bahasa karyawan berbicara, negara-negara yang dipilih, pengetahuan teknis, keterampilan, dan kemampuan, dll. Informasi dipertahankan berdasarkan penilaian diri harus diulang dan terus-menerus diperbarui sebanyak informasi (selain kepribadian) dapat berubah dari waktu ke waktu. Misalnya, kemampuan bahasa dapat berkurang jika tidak digunakan, perubahan situasi keluarga, dll.
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Language Skills
There is a logical consensus with regard to the positive relationship between language skills and international assignee adjustment (e.g., Abe & Wiseman, 1983; Church, 1982; Cui & Van den Berg, 1991). There is some disagreement, however, to the relative importance of language compared to other factors, such as personality characteristics (e.g., Benson, 1978; Cui & van den Berg, 1991; Dinges, 1983). The disagreement in the importance of language skills has its roots in whether interpersonal contact between people from different cultures leads to increased cultural understanding. Those who support contact theory believe that language skills, given that they are necessary for communication, are critical for cross-cultural adjustment. Others (e.g., Cui & Van den Berg, 1991) suggest that merely interacting with host nationals is not enough to produce cross-cultural adjustment. They suggest that cross-cultural adjustment only occurs when international assignees have the cultural empathy to be open to different norms and fully acceptant of their host cultures (Cui & Van den Berg, 1991). In other words, one could both speak the host language fluently and know the "correct" behaviors to display, and yet only superficially be immersed in the host culture (Cui & Van den Berg, 1991). Since it would be difficult for the opposite to be true (i.e., that one could be immersed in a culture without language skills), basic language skills should, at very least, be a minimum precondition for success as an international assignee. At a minimum, in most circumstances an attempt should be made to find a qualified candidate with language skills – while for some positions the language skills may be more critical than with others.

Prior International Experience
From a social learning perspective, the more contact international assignees have with host nationals and the host culture, the greater their cross-cultural adjustment (Bochner, Hutnik, & Furnham, 1986; Bochner, Mcleod, & Lin, 1971; Brein & David, 1971; Brislin, 1981; Guthrie, 1975). For example, past research has found that having friendships with host nationals greatly improves international assignees' ability to learn culturally appropriate social skills and behaviors (Searle & Ward, 1990). From this perspective, more prior experience with the host culture should produce greater cross-cultural adjustment. On the other hand, the social cognitive theorists contend that prior foreign experience with the host culture is positively related to adjustment provided that the experience does not serve to reinforce previously held stereotypical beliefs or foster negative, unrealistic expectations of the foreign culture. Social cognitive proponents agree that there is a direct relationship between foreign experience and cross-cultural adjustment when the experience provides an accurate and realistic representation of the host countries' norms, customs, values, etc but the empirical evidence is inconclusive – the relationship between previous international experience and cross-cultural adjustment is more complex as is commonly believed. There is some evidence that previous experience abroad does not always facilitate adjustment to a new expatriate environment (e.g., Black & Gregersen, 1991; Cui & Awa, 1992; Dunbar, 1992; Selmer, 2002). A recent study by Takeuchi, Tesluk, Yun, & Lepak (in-press), however, found support for unique moderating effects of past international experiences on the relationship between current assignment tenure and general and work adjustment.

Process Issues for Selecting International Assignees
There are three key process issues in the research literature regarding international assignee selection. The first is the application of realistic previews to international assignments to help create realistic expectations during (or prior to) selection. The second is the concept of a formal self-selection process which enables international assignee candidates to determine whether the assignment is right for his or her personal situation, family situation, career stage, etc. The third is traditional candidate assessment that would include many of the dimensions identified in the previous section (personality, language skills, and past experience) in a structured organizational selection program. Each of these three international assignment process issues are discussed in greater detail below.

Realistic Previews for International Assignments
Preconceived and accurate expectations prior to an international assignment have been shown to influence the international assignment in many important ways (Caligiuri & Phillips, 2003; Searle & Ward, 1990; Weissman & Furnham, 1987). Studies comparing international assignees expectations prior to going abroad and their actual experience after relocation suggest that having moderately accurate expectations facilitates cross-cultural adjustment (Searle & Ward, 1990; Weissman & Furnham, 1987). Caligiuri and Phillips (2003) found that providing realistic previews prior to international assignments did not change candidates’ interest in possible assignments, but did increase candidates’ self-efficacy for an international assignment. This self-efficacy, in turn, could influence the outcome of the international assignment.
Both research and practice suggest that in the selection phase (or prior to it) it is useful for firms to provide information, even informally, to assist candidates in making realistic decisions on whether an assignment is right for them and to help them form realistic expectations about a possible international assignment (Black, Gregersen, & Mendenhall, 1992; Caligiuri & Phillips, 2003; Tung, 1988). Many firms have pre-selection programs which pair repatriates with international assignee candidates to give international assignees the opportunity to form realistic expectations (Black, Gregersen, & Mendenhall, 1992).

Self-Selection
Given that the demographic profiles and personal situations of the international assignee candidates will vary, self-assessment (or self-selection) has been found to be an effective method for encouraging realistic previews in a tailored and self-directed way (Caligiuri & Phillips, 2003). For example, an unmarried person who is a candidate for an international assignment might have a different set of concerns, compared to a married candidate with a family (Caligiuri, Hyland, Joshi, & Bross, 1998). Likewise, given the many personality characteristics related to crosscultural adjustment, people who possess different personality characteristics may be differentially suited for certain types of international assignments (Caligiuri 2000a; 2000b; Dalton & Wilson, 2000; Ones & Viswesvaran, 1999, 1997).
Self-assessment provides a structured method for international assignment candidates to actively self-assess their fit with the personality and lifestyle requirements of the international assignment (Caligiuri & Phillips, 2003). Effective self-selection tools enable international assignee candidates to critically evaluate themselves on dimensions, such as personality and individual characteristics, career issues, and family issues (including issues of spouses and children). Self-selection instruments, in a structured way, help employees make a thoroughly informed decision about whether to accept an international assignment (Caligiuri & Phillips, 2003).
Firms using self-assessment tools have found that this step fosters the creation of a candidate pool of potential international assignees. This candidate pool can be organized to include information, such as the availability of the employee (when and to what countries), languages the employee speaks, countries preferred, technical knowledge, skills, and abilities, etc. The information retained based on self-assessment should be repeated and continually updated as much of the information (other than personality) can change over time. For example, language skills can diminish if not used, family situations change, etc.
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