Tools of Redistribution: GrantsIf higher levels of government decide f terjemahan - Tools of Redistribution: GrantsIf higher levels of government decide f Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

Tools of Redistribution: GrantsIf h

Tools of Redistribution: Grants
If higher levels of government decide for one of the two reasons stated to
redistribute across lower levels of government, they do so through intergovernmental
grants, which are cash transfers from one level of government to another.
Grants are a large and growing share of federal spending. From 1960 to 2008,
grants to lower levels of government grew from 7.6% to 15.5% of federal
spending.22 State governments, however, have always sent a large portion of
the budget to local governments. From 1960 to 2002, state grants to local governments
actually dropped slightly, from 34.1% to 28.1% of state spending, the
bulk of which funded local education.23 Higher levels of government use several
different types of grants. In defining these types, we will use the example
of a state redistributing to local communities (although the same description
applies to other forms of higher -to-lower level of government redistribution,
such as national to state).
Suppose that the town of Lexington provides only one public good to its
residents—education. It finances education through property taxes, and any
money families have after taxation is spent on private goods (such as cars or
clothing). Figure 10-2 shows the situation in Lexington before any grant is
provided. Residents of Lexington have a total budget of $1 million to spend
on education and other private goods, and we model how they choose to
divide this budget. At point A, Lexington residents choose to spend nothing
on education and spend their entire $1 million budget on private goods. At
point B, Lexington spends its entire budget of $1 million on education and
nothing on private goods.
The voters of Lexington have some preferences for education and private
goods that can be represented as an indifference curve IC1 between these two
sets of goods. That is, we can analyze Lexington’s choice between education
and private goods in the same way that we might analyze an individual’s
choice between these same items; IC1 represents the aggregation of the indifference
curves of the voters through a voting mechanism. Before there are any
state grants in place, Lexington chooses to spend $500,000 per year on education
and $500,000 per year on private goods. This spending combination is
represented by point X, where the town’s indifference curve is tangent to its
budget constraint.
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Tools of Redistribution: GrantsIf higher levels of government decide for one of the two reasons stated toredistribute across lower levels of government, they do so through intergovernmentalgrants, which are cash transfers from one level of government to another.Grants are a large and growing share of federal spending. From 1960 to 2008,grants to lower levels of government grew from 7.6% to 15.5% of federalspending.22 State governments, however, have always sent a large portion ofthe budget to local governments. From 1960 to 2002, state grants to local governmentsactually dropped slightly, from 34.1% to 28.1% of state spending, thebulk of which funded local education.23 Higher levels of government use severaldifferent types of grants. In defining these types, we will use the exampleof a state redistributing to local communities (although the same descriptionapplies to other forms of higher -to-lower level of government redistribution,such as national to state).Suppose that the town of Lexington provides only one public good to itsresidents—education. It finances education through property taxes, and anymoney families have after taxation is spent on private goods (such as cars orclothing). Figure 10-2 shows the situation in Lexington before any grant isprovided. Residents of Lexington have a total budget of $1 million to spendon education and other private goods, and we model how they choose todivide this budget. At point A, Lexington residents choose to spend nothingon education and spend their entire $1 million budget on private goods. Atpoint B, Lexington spends its entire budget of $1 million on education andnothing on private goods.The voters of Lexington have some preferences for education and privategoods that can be represented as an indifference curve IC1 between these twosets of goods. That is, we can analyze Lexington’s choice between educationand private goods in the same way that we might analyze an individual’schoice between these same items; IC1 represents the aggregation of the indifferencecurves of the voters through a voting mechanism. Before there are anystate grants in place, Lexington chooses to spend $500,000 per year on educationand $500,000 per year on private goods. This spending combination isrepresented by point X, where the town’s indifference curve is tangent to itsbudget constraint.
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Alat Redistribusi: Hibah
Jika tingkat yang lebih tinggi dari pemerintah memutuskan untuk salah satu dari dua alasan dinyatakan
mendistribusikan seluruh tingkat pemerintahan yang lebih rendah, mereka melakukannya melalui antar
pemerintah. Hibah, yang transfer uang tunai dari satu tingkat pemerintahan yang lain
Hibah adalah besar dan bagian tumbuh dari pengeluaran pemerintah federal. Dari tahun 1960 sampai 2008,
hibah ke tingkat pemerintahan yang lebih rendah tumbuh dari 7,6% menjadi 15,5% federal
pemerintah spending.22 Negara, bagaimanapun, selalu mengirim sebagian besar
anggaran untuk pemerintah daerah. Dari tahun 1960 sampai 2002, hibah negara untuk pemerintah daerah
benar-benar turun sedikit, dari 34,1% menjadi 28,1% dari belanja negara, yang
sebagian besar yang mendanai tingkat education.23 lokal lebih tinggi dari pemerintah menggunakan beberapa
jenis hibah. Dalam mendefinisikan jenis ini, kita akan menggunakan contoh
dari negara mendistribusikan ke masyarakat lokal (meskipun deskripsi yang sama
berlaku untuk bentuk lain dari tingkat -untuk-rendah lebih tinggi dari redistribusi pemerintah,
seperti nasional untuk negara).
Misalkan kota Lexington memberikan hanya satu yang baik publik untuk yang
warga-pendidikan. Ini membiayai pendidikan melalui pajak properti, dan setiap
keluarga memiliki uang setelah pajak dihabiskan untuk barang pribadi (seperti mobil atau
pakaian). Gambar 10-2 menunjukkan situasi di Lexington sebelum hibah apapun
disediakan. Warga Lexington memiliki anggaran total sebesar $ 1 juta untuk menghabiskan
pendidikan dan barang-barang pribadi lainnya, dan kita model bagaimana mereka memilih untuk
membagi anggaran ini. Pada titik A, warga Lexington memilih untuk menghabiskan apa-apa
pada pendidikan dan menghabiskan seluruh $ 1.000.000 anggaran mereka pada barang-barang pribadi. Pada
titik B, Lexington menghabiskan seluruh anggaran sebesar $ 1 juta untuk pendidikan dan
tidak ada pada barang-barang pribadi.
Para pemilih dari Lexington memiliki beberapa preferensi untuk pendidikan dan swasta
barang yang dapat diwakili sebagai IC1 kurva indiferen antara kedua
set barang. Artinya, kita dapat menganalisis pilihan Lexington antara pendidikan
dan barang pribadi dengan cara yang sama bahwa kita mungkin menganalisis individu
pilihan antara barang-barang yang sama; IC1 merupakan agregasi dari ketidakpedulian
kurva pemilih melalui mekanisme voting. Sebelum ada
hibah negara di tempat, Lexington memilih untuk menghabiskan $ 500.000 per tahun untuk pendidikan
dan $ 500.000 per tahun pada barang pribadi. Kombinasi belanja ini
diwakili oleh titik X, di mana kurva indiferen kota bersinggungan dengan yang
kendala anggaran.
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