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very much affect the commercial samples, whereas the laboratory-prepared
sample showed a more narrow gelatinization temperature range.
10.4 RETROGRADATION OF STARCH
The changes that occur in gelatinized starch, from initially an amorphous
state to a more ordered or crystalline state, are referred to as retrogradation.
These changes occur because gelatinized starch is not in thermodynamic
equilibrium. The rheological properties will change, as evidenced by an
increase in firmness or rigidity.
Loss of water-holding capacity and restoration of crystallinity will also
become evident and increase on aging. These processes exert a major and
usually not acceptable influence on the texture of foods rich in starch. Starch
retrogradation is the main factor in the staling of bread and other baked
products [132–135], although other factors are also involved [136].
Because the processes of recrystallization and increased firmness are both
referred to as retrogradation and different techniques are used to measure them,
the evaluation of retrogradation becomes complicated. Different techniques
are not necessarily measuring the same process. The kinetics of retrogradation
has been studied to elucidate the molecular mechanism behind the phenomenon but is still not completely known [132,133,135–139]. Retrogradation
would not take place without a certain minimum amount of water, and the
water content together with the storage temperatures are very important
because they control the rate and the extent of retrogradation. Many substances
can interfere with the retrogradation process. Most important among them are
lipids and surfactants. The retrogradation tendency of starches of various
botanical origins varies greatly and does not seem to depend simply on the
amylose-to-amylopectin ratios of the starches.
10.4.1 METHODS FORESTIMATINGRETROGRADATION
AND THEFEATURESMEASURED
The most common methods for measuring retrogradation (i.e., rate and extent
of recrystallization on aging) are x-ray diffraction analysis [133,140,141],
thermal methods such as DSC [91,134,142–145], and rheological techniques
[138,146–148]. Because the retrogradation is to a large extent a recrystallization process, it can be followed by changes in x-ray diffraction patterns. In
cereal starches, the A-pattern is lost during gelatinization and only the Vpattern is obtained due to the formation of an amylose–lipid complex. On
aging, the B-pattern will develop, superimposed on the V-pattern [140]. The
intensity of the B-pattern increases with time. X-ray diffraction analysis gives,
therefore, both the type and degree of crystallinity.
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Starch: Physicochemical and Functional Aspects 417
Thermal methods (e.g., DSC) are well suited for following the rate and
extent of retrogradation as the starch molecules progressively reassociate on
aging. Aged gels and stale bread show a characteristic melting endotherm
around 55 to 60°C, which is absent in fresh gels and breads immediately after
gelatinization. This transition enthalpy increases progressively in magnitude
with storage time until a certain limit is reached and remains constant on
further storage. The calorimetry provides, therefore, a means to follow the
formation of recrystallized starch gels through the melting endotherm of the
B-crystals. The endotherm measured is the melting of recrystallized amylopectin [91]. Rheological techniques, especially fundamental viscoelastic measurements, are also well suited to monitoring gel firmness (rigidity) on aging.
Other methods, such as enzymatic digestion [149], quantitative centrifugation
[150], Raman spectrometry [137], and the NMR technique [151] have been
used to evaluate the retrogradation process.
10.4.2 COMPONENTS OFSTARCH
It was first suggested by Schoch and French [132] that the staling of bread
essentially involves the retrogradation of the amylopectin but not the amylose
fraction. Since then, many investigations have been carried out to determine
the respective roles of amylopectin and amylose and their combined effects
in the retrogradation of starch gels and staling of baked products. The composite nature of starch gels, in which swollen gelatinized starch granules are
embedded in an interpenetrating amylose–gel matrix, to a large extent determines the roles of both amylose and amylopectin [152–155].
When gels that are made of amylose or amylopectin (without granules)
are compared to starch gels, some important features emerge that explain the
roles of the two starch polymers in retrogradation. Early x-ray diffraction
studies on aged starch gels showed that the B-type diffraction pattern developed slowly [140]. Amylose gels in storage and amylose precipitated from
aqueous solution give weak x-ray diffraction patterns of the B-type [156].
Amylopectin gels also show the characteristic B-type pattern upon storage
[157,158]. Both amylose and amylopectin gels, then, show the B-pattern upon
storage. Sarko and Wu [40] proposed that the retrogradation is due to crosslinking of chains by double-helical gel junction zones. One possible mechanism
involved in the gelling of amylose is phase separation into polymer-rich and
polymer-deficient regions [146,147]. Crystallinity, as detected by x-ray diffraction, is a slower process than gel network formation (i.e., phase separation)
and was proposed to occur in the polymer-rich regions of the gel [146,147].
For both amylose and the starch gel, the initial development of crystallinity
was found to occur at similar rates. The crystallization of amylose reached a
limit after 2 days, whereas the crystallinity of the starch gel continued to
increase [147]. The amylopectin gels increase slowly in crystallinity with time
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
418 Carbohydrates in Food
and approach a limiting value after 30 to 40 days [158]. It was found that
about 70% of the crystallinity of fully retrograded starch gels was lost after
heating to 90°C, whereas the crystallinity of the amylose gel was reduced by
only 25% [146]. The crystallinity of amylopectin gels is fully reversible by
heating [157]. The residual crystallinity of starch gels after heating is therefore
solely due to the amylose fraction. Isolated gelatinized starch granules that
are mostly made of amylopectin and washed free from all exuded amylose
give no x-ray diffraction pattern immediately after cooling. After 2 weeks of
storage, the B-type pattern is obtained, which completely disappears upon
heating to 70°C [146].
Differential scanning calorimetry studies on retrogradation also suggest
that long-term changes are due to the amylopectin fraction [91,142,146]. Aged
bread, starch, and amylopectin gels show a melting endotherm that slowly
increases with time, whereas no melting endotherm is obtained for amylose
gels in the temperature interval of 10 to 130°C. The crystallinity of the amylose
fraction can be seen as an endothermic peak at 145 to 153°C [142,159], a
temperature rarely reached in connection with starch-based foods. The melting
endotherm of starch gels and stale breads is completely reversible; no endotherm is obtained immediately after the heating of an aged starch gel. In a
DSC study on amylose chain association in lipid-depleted starches and amylose, an exothermic peak appeared on cooling immediately after the samples
had been heated to 180°C [159]. This shows that the amylose reassociates
very quickly, as waxy maize starch or amylopectins did not show this exothermic peak. The different recrystallization rates of amylose and amylopectin
have been confirmed by microcalorimetry, where the exothermic heat evolved
during crystallization is measured [159a].
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