(i) criteria for categorizing phenomena as meaningful stimuli, (ii) cr terjemahan - (i) criteria for categorizing phenomena as meaningful stimuli, (ii) cr Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

(i) criteria for categorizing pheno

(i) criteria for categorizing phenomena as meaningful stimuli, (ii) criteria for
deciding what can be, (iii) criteria for deciding how one feels about things (pref-
erences and values), (iv) criteria for deciding what to do about things, (v) criteria
for deciding how to go about doing things, and (vi) the skills needed to perform
acceptably (Goodenough 1963a, pp. 258–59).
Because it consists of what each individual has made out of his or her experi-
ences, what is learned must be located in people’s individual minds and bodies. It
follows that no two people have exactly the same criteria or exactly the same un-
derstanding of what they perceive to be the expectations (the criteria and standards)
of those with whom they have dealings. As long as the variation in their individ-
ual knowledge and understandings does not interfere with their ability to interact
readily with one another, they have the sense that they share their knowledge and
understandings and therefore have a common culture. Just as no two people have
exactly the same way of speaking what they perceive as their common language, so
no two members of a community have exactly the same understanding of what they
perceive to be their community’s way of doing things, its culture. Thus people see
communities as having languages and cultures, but, in fact, these are collections

of individual understandings of what the languages and cultures consist of. As
long as these differences do not get in the way of people living and working to-
gether (sometimes, indeed, they do), people ignore them and may be unaware of
them. We can legitimately speak of a community’s language and culture, just as
we can legitimately speak of biological species or subspecies (Goodenogh 1981a).
The collection of individual understandings comprising a community’s culture are
analogous to the collection of individual genotypes comprising a breeding group’s
or deme’s gene pool. The cultural variance within a community and the genetic
variance within a deme are considerably less than the variance across communi-
ties and across demes. Most individuals, moreover, are likely to have knowledge
of more than one cultural or subcultural tradition as a result of interactions with
different sets of others in his own and other societies (Goodenough 1976).
For any community, then, it is more precise to speak not of its culture but of its
cultural makeup: the content of its culture pool and the distribution of that content,
subject matter by subject matter, among the community’s various subgroups as well
as individuals (Goodenough 1981a, p. 112). An ethnographer seeks to develop his
own understanding or version of that community’s culture. If it enables him to grasp
the meaning of events in the way the community’s members grasp them, then his
account of that culture is a valid one but not the only possible valid one. It is a model
of what one needs to know to function acceptably as a member of that community
in the same way that a grammar and dictionary of a language aim to provide a
model of what one needs to know in order to speak the language acceptably.
This way of understanding culture opens up insights into cultural evolution
and cultural change. Individuals’ understandings of their society’s culture change
through time. They are different, moreover, with each new generation of learners.
Thus there are constant small mutations in these understandings, each mutation
making a small difference (and sometimes a big difference) in the content of a
community’s culture pool. As new generations come along, learning at first from
parents and other seniors and then, very importantly, from peers, new mutations
diffuse across the channels of communication and social interaction. In the course
of ethnographic description we create portraits of communities’ cultures, which
are, indeed, informative and useful; but these portraits, like snapshots, do not
reveal the ongoing processes that are constantly affecting the contents of these
communities’ culture pools.
These insights led me to become interested not only in cultural evolution as a
process but also in cultural phylogeny and the methodological problem of recog-
nizing cognate cultural traditions (Goodenough 1997a, 1999). It became evident
to me that a community’s cultural makeup as a whole, though changing through
time in response to a number of different processes, was not the basic unit of
cultural evolution. Discrete bundles of how to do things, such as build a house
or celebrate a marriage, become relatively distinct traditions as they are passed
down across generations. These traditions are the main units of cultural evolution
and change. Thus the community meeting house, its organization, and protocol
in Kiribati (Gilbert Islands) constitute a tradition that was introduced by Samoan
Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2003.32:1-12. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
Access provided by 202.67.43.39 on 07/03/15. For personal use only.
9 Aug 2003 18:52 AR AR196-AN32-01.tex AR196-AN32-01.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18)
P1: GCE
8
GOODENOUGH
immigrants several centuries ago (Maude 1963). As such it has been integrated
into the makeup of Kiribati culture, but it is cognate phylogenetically with the
tradition in Samoa relating to its community meeting house, the
fono
. The Kiribati
and Samoan versions of what was once a common ancestral tradition have di-
verged over time, but they remain cognate traditions. Other traditions in Kiribati
and Samoa have different evolutionary histories, though they too may be more
distantly related phylogenetically.
Traditions are tied to activities. When I was trying to formulate a method for
predicting the probable ramifying effects, if any, of an introduced cultural or tech-
nological change, activities were the key. I found that Malinowski’s (1944) model
0/5000
Dari: -
Ke: -
Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 1: [Salinan]
Disalin!
(i) criteria for categorizing phenomena as meaningful stimuli, (ii) criteria fordeciding what can be, (iii) criteria for deciding how one feels about things (pref-erences and values), (iv) criteria for deciding what to do about things, (v) criteriafor deciding how to go about doing things, and (vi) the skills needed to performacceptably (Goodenough 1963a, pp. 258–59).Because it consists of what each individual has made out of his or her experi-ences, what is learned must be located in people’s individual minds and bodies. Itfollows that no two people have exactly the same criteria or exactly the same un-derstanding of what they perceive to be the expectations (the criteria and standards)of those with whom they have dealings. As long as the variation in their individ-ual knowledge and understandings does not interfere with their ability to interactreadily with one another, they have the sense that they share their knowledge andunderstandings and therefore have a common culture. Just as no two people haveexactly the same way of speaking what they perceive as their common language, sono two members of a community have exactly the same understanding of what theyperceive to be their community’s way of doing things, its culture. Thus people seecommunities as having languages and cultures, but, in fact, these are collectionsof individual understandings of what the languages and cultures consist of. Aslong as these differences do not get in the way of people living and working to-gether (sometimes, indeed, they do), people ignore them and may be unaware ofthem. We can legitimately speak of a community’s language and culture, just aswe can legitimately speak of biological species or subspecies (Goodenogh 1981a).The collection of individual understandings comprising a community’s culture areanalogous to the collection of individual genotypes comprising a breeding group’sor deme’s gene pool. The cultural variance within a community and the geneticvariance within a deme are considerably less than the variance across communi-ties and across demes. Most individuals, moreover, are likely to have knowledgeof more than one cultural or subcultural tradition as a result of interactions withdifferent sets of others in his own and other societies (Goodenough 1976).For any community, then, it is more precise to speak not of its culture but of itscultural makeup: the content of its culture pool and the distribution of that content,subject matter by subject matter, among the community’s various subgroups as wellas individuals (Goodenough 1981a, p. 112). An ethnographer seeks to develop hisown understanding or version of that community’s culture. If it enables him to graspthe meaning of events in the way the community’s members grasp them, then hisaccount of that culture is a valid one but not the only possible valid one. It is a modelof what one needs to know to function acceptably as a member of that communityin the same way that a grammar and dictionary of a language aim to provide amodel of what one needs to know in order to speak the language acceptably.This way of understanding culture opens up insights into cultural evolutionand cultural change. Individuals’ understandings of their society’s culture changethrough time. They are different, moreover, with each new generation of learners.Thus there are constant small mutations in these understandings, each mutationmaking a small difference (and sometimes a big difference) in the content of acommunity’s culture pool. As new generations come along, learning at first fromparents and other seniors and then, very importantly, from peers, new mutationsdiffuse across the channels of communication and social interaction. In the courseof ethnographic description we create portraits of communities’ cultures, whichare, indeed, informative and useful; but these portraits, like snapshots, do notreveal the ongoing processes that are constantly affecting the contents of thesecommunities’ culture pools.These insights led me to become interested not only in cultural evolution as aprocess but also in cultural phylogeny and the methodological problem of recog-nizing cognate cultural traditions (Goodenough 1997a, 1999). It became evidentto me that a community’s cultural makeup as a whole, though changing throughtime in response to a number of different processes, was not the basic unit ofcultural evolution. Discrete bundles of how to do things, such as build a houseor celebrate a marriage, become relatively distinct traditions as they are passeddown across generations. These traditions are the main units of cultural evolutionand change. Thus the community meeting house, its organization, and protocolin Kiribati (Gilbert Islands) constitute a tradition that was introduced by SamoanAnnu. Rev. Anthropol. 2003.32:1-12. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.orgAccess provided by 202.67.43.39 on 07/03/15. For personal use only.9 Aug 2003 18:52 AR AR196-AN32-01.tex AR196-AN32-01.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18)P1: GCE8GOODENOUGHimmigrants several centuries ago (Maude 1963). As such it has been integratedinto the makeup of Kiribati culture, but it is cognate phylogenetically with thetradition in Samoa relating to its community meeting house, thefono. The Kiribatiand Samoan versions of what was once a common ancestral tradition have di-verged over time, but they remain cognate traditions. Other traditions in Kiribatiand Samoa have different evolutionary histories, though they too may be moredistantly related phylogenetically.Traditions are tied to activities. When I was trying to formulate a method forpredicting the probable ramifying effects, if any, of an introduced cultural or tech-nological change, activities were the key. I found that Malinowski’s (1944) model
Sedang diterjemahkan, harap tunggu..
Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 2:[Salinan]
Disalin!
(I) kriteria untuk mengelompokkan fenomena seperti rangsangan yang berarti, (ii) kriteria untuk
memutuskan apa yang bisa, (iii) kriteria untuk memutuskan bagaimana seseorang merasa tentang hal-hal (terhadap lembaga nirlaba
perbedaan-perbedaan dan nilai-nilai), (iv) kriteria untuk memutuskan apa yang harus dilakukan tentang hal, (v) kriteria
untuk memutuskan bagaimana untuk pergi tentang melakukan hal-hal, dan (vi) kemampuan yang dibutuhkan untuk melakukan
diterima (Goodenough 1963a, hlm. 258-59).
Karena terdiri dari apa yang setiap individu telah membuat keluar dari nya pengalaman-
ences, apa yang dipelajari harus berada dalam pikiran individu dan tubuh manusia. Hal
berikut bahwa tidak ada dua orang memiliki persis kriteria yang sama atau persis sama un-
derstanding dari apa yang mereka anggap menjadi harapan (kriteria dan standar)
dari orang-orang dengan siapa mereka memiliki hubungan. Selama variasi mereka individ-
UAL pengetahuan dan pemahaman tidak mengganggu kemampuan mereka untuk berinteraksi
dengan mudah dengan satu sama lain, mereka memiliki arti bahwa mereka berbagi pengetahuan dan mereka
pemahaman dan karena itu memiliki budaya yang sama. Sama seperti tidak ada dua orang memiliki
cara yang persis sama berbicara apa yang mereka anggap sebagai bahasa umum mereka, sehingga
tidak ada dua anggota komunitas memiliki tepat pemahaman yang sama tentang apa yang mereka
anggap menjadi cara masyarakat mereka dalam melakukan sesuatu, budaya. Jadi orang melihat
masyarakat sebagai memiliki bahasa dan budaya, tetapi, pada kenyataannya, ini adalah koleksi dari pemahaman individu tentang apa bahasa dan budaya terdiri dari. Seperti Selama perbedaan ini tidak mendapatkan di jalan orang-orang yang tinggal dan bekerja ke- gether (kadang-kadang, memang, mereka lakukan), orang mengabaikan mereka dan mungkin tidak menyadari mereka. Kami sah dapat berbicara bahasa dan budaya masyarakat, seperti kita sah dapat berbicara spesies biologis atau subspesies (Goodenogh 1981a). Pengumpulan pemahaman individu yang terdiri dari budaya masyarakat yang analog dengan koleksi genotipe individu yang terdiri dari kelompok pembibitan ini atau Deme dunia gen. Varians budaya dalam masyarakat dan genetik varians dalam Deme yang jauh lebih kecil dari varian di komunikasi- ikatan dan seluruh tema-tema. Kebanyakan orang, apalagi, cenderung memiliki pengetahuan lebih dari satu tradisi budaya atau subkultur sebagai akibat dari interaksi dengan set yang berbeda dari orang lain dalam masyarakat sendiri dan lainnya (Goodenough 1976). Untuk setiap masyarakat, maka, itu lebih tepat untuk berbicara bukan dari budaya tetapi yang makeup budaya: isi kolam budaya dan distribusi konten itu, materi pelajaran dengan materi pelajaran, di antara berbagai subkelompok masyarakat serta sebagai individu (Goodenough 1981a, hal 112.). Sebuah etnografer berusaha untuk mengembangkan nya pemahaman atau versi budaya yang masyarakat sendiri. Jika memungkinkan dia untuk memahami makna peristiwa dalam cara anggota masyarakat memahami mereka, maka nya akun budaya yang valid tetapi bukan satu-satunya yang mungkin valid. Ini adalah model dari apa yang orang perlu tahu berfungsi diterima sebagai anggota masyarakat yang dengan cara yang sama bahwa tata bahasa dan kamus dari bahasa tujuan untuk memberikan model apa yang perlu tahu untuk berbicara bahasa diterima. Dengan cara ini memahami budaya membuka wawasan evolusi budaya dan perubahan budaya. Pemahaman individu perubahan budaya masyarakat mereka melalui waktu. Mereka berbeda, apalagi, dengan setiap generasi baru dari peserta didik. Jadi ada mutasi kecil konstan dalam pemahaman ini, setiap mutasi membuat perbedaan kecil (dan kadang-kadang perbedaan besar) dalam isi dari kolam renang budaya masyarakat. Sebagai generasi baru datang, belajar pada awalnya dari orang tua dan senior lainnya dan kemudian, sangat penting, dari rekan-rekan, mutasi baru menyebar di seluruh saluran komunikasi dan interaksi sosial. Dalam perjalanan dari deskripsi etnografis kita membuat potret budaya masyarakat, yang , memang, informatif dan berguna; namun potret ini, seperti foto, tidak mengungkapkan proses berkelanjutan yang terus-menerus mempengaruhi isi dari kolam budaya masyarakat. Wawasan ini membuat saya menjadi tertarik tidak hanya dalam evolusi budaya sebagai proses tetapi juga dalam filogeni budaya dan masalah metodologis dari justru menemukan nizing tradisi budaya serumpun (Goodenough 1997a, 1999). Ini menjadi jelas bagi saya bahwa makeup budaya masyarakat secara keseluruhan, meskipun berubah melalui waktu dalam menanggapi sejumlah proses yang berbeda, tidak unit dasar evolusi budaya. Bundel diskrit bagaimana melakukan hal-hal, seperti membangun rumah atau merayakan pernikahan, menjadi tradisi yang relatif berbeda karena mereka melewati bawah lintas generasi. Tradisi ini adalah unit utama evolusi budaya dan perubahan. Jadi rumah masyarakat rapat, organisasi, dan protokol di Kiribati (Kepulauan Gilbert) merupakan tradisi yang diperkenalkan oleh Samoa Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2.003,32: 1-12. Download dari www.annualreviews.org Access disediakan oleh 202.67.43.39 pada 07/03/15. Untuk penggunaan pribadi saja. 9 Agustus 2003 18:52 AR AR196-AN32-01.tex AR196-AN32-01.sgm LaTeX2e (2002/01/18) P1: GCE 8 Goodenough imigran beberapa abad yang lalu (Maude 1963). Dengan demikian telah diintegrasikan ke dalam susunan budaya Kiribati, tetapi filogenetis serumpun dengan tradisi di Samoa yang berkaitan dengan nya rumah pertemuan masyarakat, fono . The Kiribati dan Samoa versi yang dulunya tradisi leluhur umum memiliki di- verged dari waktu ke waktu, tetapi mereka tetap tradisi serumpun. Tradisi-tradisi lain di Kiribati dan Samoa memiliki sejarah evolusi yang berbeda, meskipun mereka juga dapat lebih jauh terkait filogenetis. Tradisi terikat dengan kegiatan. Ketika saya mencoba untuk merumuskan metode untuk memprediksi efek ramifying kemungkinan, jika ada, dari budaya atau-teknik diperkenalkan perubahan nological, kegiatan yang kuncinya. Saya menemukan bahwa (1944) Model Malinowski































































Sedang diterjemahkan, harap tunggu..
 
Bahasa lainnya
Dukungan alat penerjemahan: Afrikans, Albania, Amhara, Arab, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahasa Indonesia, Basque, Belanda, Belarussia, Bengali, Bosnia, Bulgaria, Burma, Cebuano, Ceko, Chichewa, China, Cina Tradisional, Denmark, Deteksi bahasa, Esperanto, Estonia, Farsi, Finlandia, Frisia, Gaelig, Gaelik Skotlandia, Galisia, Georgia, Gujarati, Hausa, Hawaii, Hindi, Hmong, Ibrani, Igbo, Inggris, Islan, Italia, Jawa, Jepang, Jerman, Kannada, Katala, Kazak, Khmer, Kinyarwanda, Kirghiz, Klingon, Korea, Korsika, Kreol Haiti, Kroat, Kurdi, Laos, Latin, Latvia, Lituania, Luksemburg, Magyar, Makedonia, Malagasi, Malayalam, Malta, Maori, Marathi, Melayu, Mongol, Nepal, Norsk, Odia (Oriya), Pashto, Polandia, Portugis, Prancis, Punjabi, Rumania, Rusia, Samoa, Serb, Sesotho, Shona, Sindhi, Sinhala, Slovakia, Slovenia, Somali, Spanyol, Sunda, Swahili, Swensk, Tagalog, Tajik, Tamil, Tatar, Telugu, Thai, Turki, Turkmen, Ukraina, Urdu, Uyghur, Uzbek, Vietnam, Wales, Xhosa, Yiddi, Yoruba, Yunani, Zulu, Bahasa terjemahan.

Copyright ©2024 I Love Translation. All reserved.

E-mail: