put. Hence, firms need to constantl

put. Hence, firms need to constantly explore new bases of competitive advantage.
P : The more decentralized the service delivery process, the greater the importance of spatial preemption as a source of competitive cost and/or differentiation advantage.
Communication Good Effects
The value of certain products (e.g., telephone network ser¬vices, micro computer services) increases as the number of users or adopters increase. These products, called communi¬cation goods (Connor and Rumelt 1991), serve as a means of standardization, because a large user base brings a large number of complementary goods into being. Case in point:
The importance of communication good effects as a source of competitive differentiation advantage is high¬lighted by the evolution of the video cassette recorder (VCR) business. In the early years, when Sony's Betamax and Matsushita's VHS-format VCRs were coexisting, as well as competing to become the industry standard, video rental service businesses stocked an equal number of pre¬recorded tapes in both formats. As the percentage of house¬holds owning VHS format VCRs increased relative to the percentage owning Betamax-format VCRs, video rental service businesses modified their inventory mix. In most instances, they stocked multiple copies of video software prerecorded in the VHS format, but only one copy in the Betamax format. Over time, with (1) video software mar-keters (i.e., movie studios) increasingly offering their ware exclusively in the VHS format, (2) video rental ser¬vice firms carrying only VHS-format tapes, and (3) most retail outlets stocking only VHS-format blank tapes, the VHS format emerged as the industry standard.
When communication goods are also experience products (such as computer software, disk operating systems), there is a market for both standardization and reputation bonding. Therefore, a particular brand becomes the industry standard and a powerful means of coordination (Rumelt 1987). Devel¬oping or setting industry standards makes a firm's position more sustainable (Porter 1985). In cases of products in which evaluation is difficult, akin to reputation, the indus¬try standard plays the role of an alternative cue that makes itself more salient to the customer. Therefore,
Pn: The greater the experience and credence attributes of a ser-vice, the greater the importance of communication good effects as a source of competitive differentiation advan-tage.
The importance of spatial preemption and communica¬tion good effects as potential sources of competitive advan¬tage is also moderated by the order of entry of firms into an industry. Literature on pioneering or first-mover advantage, a major area of research in economics, strategic manage¬ment, and marketing, suggests that on average, pioneers have higher market shares than late entrants (c.f. Robinson and Fornell 1985; Robinson 1988).12 Potential sources of first-mover advantage and disadvantages associated with market pioneering are reviewed by Lieberman and Montgomery (1988) and Kerin, Varadarajan, and Peterson
12The validity and generalizability of studies reporting a systematic rela¬tionship between order of entry and market share have, however, been ques¬tioned in light of their methodological shortcomings, such as operational definition of market pioneer, survivor bias, and sample composition (Kerin, Varadarajan, and Peterson 1992).

(1992). The preceding discussions relating to spatial preemp¬tion and communication good effects suggest the following:
P : Potential opportunities for achieving competitive cost and/or differentiation advantage through spatial preemp¬tion are greater for the market pioneer than for later entrants.
P : Potential opportunities for achieving competitive differ-entiation advantage through communication good effects are greater for the market pioneer than for later entrants.
Corporate Culture
An organization's culture is a complex set of beliefs and ways of doing things that influence the organization's per¬spective of itself and the world around it. A key element of corporate culture is the set of formal rules and structures that governs the way people relate to one another in the workplace. Another is the set of myths and traditions that help define the ideology of the organization (Mintzberg 1983). Most of the literature on organization culture and per¬formance of a firm suggests that culture can have a signifi¬cant positive economic value for a firm (Barney 1986a; Ouchi 1981; Deal and Kennedy 1982). The strong culture hypothesis suggests that firms that have strong distinctive traits, values and shared belief patterns will outperform or¬ganizations that are weak on these dimensions (Dennison 1984). Strong cultures can (1) help attain a shared vision and goal congruence among employees to meet organiza¬tional goals (Wilkins and Ouchi 1983); (2) empower employ¬ees to be flexible and achieve organizational goals (Pascale 1985); and (3) energize the employees of an organization. A recent study reports that firms with cultures that empha¬size key managerial constituencies (customers, stockhold¬ers, and employees) and leadership (at all levels) outper¬formed by a large margin firms that did not have those cul¬tural traits (Kotter and Heskett 1992). Another recent study focusing on culture types as determinants of performance (Deshpande, Farley, and Webster 1993) reports that Japa¬nese companies with corporate cultures stressing competi-tiveness (markets) and entrepreneurship ("adhocracies") outperformed those dominated by internal cohesiveness (clans) or rules (hierarchies). Services being primarily deliv¬ered by employees, the "people" component of service de¬livery as perceived by customers plays an important role in service differentiation. Hence, a critical factor that endows a service organization with a competitive edge is its employ¬ees, and the way they are influenced by the culture of the organization.
P : The greater the "people" intensity of a service industry, the greater the importance of culture as a source of com-petitive advantage.
Organizational Expertise/Producer Learning/ Experience Effects13
Organizational learning, or the improvement in skills and abilities achieved through learning within the firm
Given that organizational expertise and information technology appear to be equally important sources of competitive advantage across all service industries, no formal propositions are presented in the sections devoted to these sources of competitive advantage.

92 / Journal of Marketing, October 1993
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission

Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 1:

menempatkan. Oleh karena itu, perusahaan perlu untuk terus-menerus menjelajahi basis baru keunggulan kompetitif.P: Semakin desentralisasi proses pengiriman layanan, semakin besar pentingnya spasial preemption sebagai sumber keunggulan kompetitif Anda biaya dan/atau diferensiasi.Komunikasi baik efekNilai produk tertentu (misalnya, ser¬vices jaringan telepon, Layanan komputer mikro) meningkatkan jumlah pengguna atau pengadopsi peningkatan. Produk ini, yang disebut communi¬cation barang (Connor dan Rumelt 1991), berfungsi sebagai sarana untuk standardisasi, karena basis pengguna yang besar membawa sejumlah besar barang pelengkap menjadi. Kasus di titik:The importance of communication good effects as a source of competitive differentiation advantage is high¬lighted by the evolution of the video cassette recorder (VCR) business. In the early years, when Sony's Betamax and Matsushita's VHS-format VCRs were coexisting, as well as competing to become the industry standard, video rental service businesses stocked an equal number of pre¬recorded tapes in both formats. As the percentage of house¬holds owning VHS format VCRs increased relative to the percentage owning Betamax-format VCRs, video rental service businesses modified their inventory mix. In most instances, they stocked multiple copies of video software prerecorded in the VHS format, but only one copy in the Betamax format. Over time, with (1) video software mar-keters (i.e., movie studios) increasingly offering their ware exclusively in the VHS format, (2) video rental ser¬vice firms carrying only VHS-format tapes, and (3) most retail outlets stocking only VHS-format blank tapes, the VHS format emerged as the industry standard.When communication goods are also experience products (such as computer software, disk operating systems), there is a market for both standardization and reputation bonding. Therefore, a particular brand becomes the industry standard and a powerful means of coordination (Rumelt 1987). Devel¬oping or setting industry standards makes a firm's position more sustainable (Porter 1985). In cases of products in which evaluation is difficult, akin to reputation, the indus¬try standard plays the role of an alternative cue that makes itself more salient to the customer. Therefore,Pn: The greater the experience and credence attributes of a ser-vice, the greater the importance of communication good effects as a source of competitive differentiation advan-tage.The importance of spatial preemption and communica¬tion good effects as potential sources of competitive advan¬tage is also moderated by the order of entry of firms into an industry. Literature on pioneering or first-mover advantage, a major area of research in economics, strategic manage¬ment, and marketing, suggests that on average, pioneers have higher market shares than late entrants (c.f. Robinson and Fornell 1985; Robinson 1988).12 Potential sources of first-mover advantage and disadvantages associated with market pioneering are reviewed by Lieberman and Montgomery (1988) and Kerin, Varadarajan, and Peterson12The validity and generalizability of studies reporting a systematic rela¬tionship between order of entry and market share have, however, been ques¬tioned in light of their methodological shortcomings, such as operational definition of market pioneer, survivor bias, and sample composition (Kerin, Varadarajan, and Peterson 1992). (1992). The preceding discussions relating to spatial preemp¬tion and communication good effects suggest the following:P : Potential opportunities for achieving competitive cost and/or differentiation advantage through spatial preemp¬tion are greater for the market pioneer than for later entrants.P : Potential opportunities for achieving competitive differ-entiation advantage through communication good effects are greater for the market pioneer than for later entrants.Corporate CultureAn organization's culture is a complex set of beliefs and ways of doing things that influence the organization's per¬spective of itself and the world around it. A key element of corporate culture is the set of formal rules and structures that governs the way people relate to one another in the workplace. Another is the set of myths and traditions that help define the ideology of the organization (Mintzberg 1983). Most of the literature on organization culture and per¬formance of a firm suggests that culture can have a signifi¬cant positive economic value for a firm (Barney 1986a; Ouchi 1981; Deal and Kennedy 1982). The strong culture hypothesis suggests that firms that have strong distinctive traits, values and shared belief patterns will outperform or¬ganizations that are weak on these dimensions (Dennison 1984). Strong cultures can (1) help attain a shared vision and goal congruence among employees to meet organiza¬tional goals (Wilkins and Ouchi 1983); (2) empower employ¬ees to be flexible and achieve organizational goals (Pascale 1985); and (3) energize the employees of an organization. A recent study reports that firms with cultures that empha¬size key managerial constituencies (customers, stockhold¬ers, and employees) and leadership (at all levels) outper¬formed by a large margin firms that did not have those cul¬tural traits (Kotter and Heskett 1992). Another recent study focusing on culture types as determinants of performance (Deshpande, Farley, and Webster 1993) reports that Japa¬nese companies with corporate cultures stressing competi-tiveness (markets) and entrepreneurship ("adhocracies") outperformed those dominated by internal cohesiveness (clans) or rules (hierarchies). Services being primarily deliv¬ered by employees, the "people" component of service de¬livery as perceived by customers plays an important role in service differentiation. Hence, a critical factor that endows a service organization with a competitive edge is its employ¬ees, and the way they are influenced by the culture of the organization.P : The greater the "people" intensity of a service industry, the greater the importance of culture as a source of com-petitive advantage.
Organizational Expertise/Producer Learning/ Experience Effects13
Organizational learning, or the improvement in skills and abilities achieved through learning within the firm
Given that organizational expertise and information technology appear to be equally important sources of competitive advantage across all service industries, no formal propositions are presented in the sections devoted to these sources of competitive advantage.

92 / Journal of Marketing, October 1993
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission

Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 2:

menempatkan. Oleh karena itu, perusahaan perlu terus-menerus mengeksplorasi basis baru keunggulan kompetitif.
P: Semakin desentralisasi proses pelayanan, semakin besar pentingnya preemption spasial sebagai sumber biaya yang kompetitif dan / atau keuntungan diferensiasi.
Komunikasi yang baik Efek
Nilai produk tertentu (misalnya, ser¬vices jaringan telepon, layanan komputer mikro) meningkat sebagai jumlah pengguna atau pengadopsi peningkatan. Produk-produk ini, yang disebut communi¬cation barang (Connor dan Rumelt 1991), berfungsi sebagai sarana standardisasi, karena basis pengguna yang besar membawa sejumlah besar barang komplementer menjadi ada. Contoh kasus:
Pentingnya komunikasi efek yang baik sebagai sumber keunggulan diferensiasi kompetitif high¬lighted oleh evolusi (VCR) bisnis kaset perekam video. Pada tahun-tahun awal, ketika Sony Betamax dan Matsushita VHS format VCR yang hidup bersama, serta bersaing untuk menjadi standar industri, penyewaan video bisnis jasa ditebar jumlah yang sama kaset pre¬recorded di kedua format. Sebagai persentase house¬holds memiliki VHS Format VCR meningkat relatif terhadap persentase memiliki Betamax format VCR, penyewaan video bisnis jasa modifikasi campuran persediaan mereka. Dalam kebanyakan kasus, mereka ditebar beberapa salinan dari video yang direkam dalam software format VHS, tetapi hanya satu salinan dalam format Betamax. Seiring waktu, dengan (1) software video mar-keters (yaitu, studio film) semakin menawarkan perlengkapan mereka secara eksklusif dalam format VHS, (2) perusahaan penyewaan video ser¬vice hanya membawa VHS format kaset, dan (3) paling ritel outlet stocking hanya VHS format kaset kosong, format VHS muncul sebagai standar industri.
Ketika barang komunikasi juga produk pengalaman (seperti perangkat lunak komputer, sistem operasi disk), ada pasar untuk kedua standarisasi dan reputasi ikatan. Oleh karena itu, merek tertentu menjadi standar industri dan sarana yang kuat koordinasi (Rumelt 1987). Devel¬oping atau menetapkan standar industri membuat posisi perusahaan lebih berkelanjutan (Porter 1985). Dalam kasus produk di mana evaluasi sulit, mirip dengan reputasi, standar indus¬try memainkan peran isyarat alternatif yang membuat dirinya lebih menonjol kepada pelanggan. Oleh karena itu,
Pn: Semakin besar atribut pengalaman dan kepercayaan dari ser-wakil, semakin besar pentingnya efek komunikasi yang baik sebagai sumber kompetitif diferensiasi advan-tage.
Pentingnya preemption spasial dan communica¬tion efek yang baik sebagai sumber potensial advan¬tage kompetitif juga dimoderatori oleh urutan masuknya perusahaan ke dalam sebuah industri. Literatur tentang keuntungan perintis atau penggerak pertama, area utama penelitian di bidang ekonomi, manage¬ment strategis, dan pemasaran, menunjukkan bahwa rata-rata, pelopor memiliki pangsa pasar lebih tinggi dari pendatang terlambat (cf Robinson dan Fornell 1985; Robinson 1988) .12 potensi sumber keuntungan penggerak pertama dan kerugian terkait dengan perintis pasar ditinjau oleh Lieberman dan Montgomery (1988) dan Kerin, Varadarajan, dan Peterson
12Dan validitas dan generalisasi studi melaporkan rela¬tionship sistematis antara urutan masuk dan pangsa pasar memiliki, Namun, telah ques¬tioned mengingat kekurangan metodologis mereka, seperti definisi operasional pelopor pasar, bias selamat, dan komposisi sampel (Kerin, Varadarajan, dan Peterson 1992). (1992). Diskusi sebelumnya yang berkaitan dengan tata ruang preemp¬tion dan komunikasi efek yang baik menyarankan sebagai berikut: P: Potensi peluang untuk mencapai biaya yang kompetitif dan / atau keuntungan diferensiasi melalui preemp¬tion spasial lebih besar untuk perintis pasar daripada pendatang kemudian. P: Potensi peluang untuk mencapai kompetitif berbeda-entiation keuntungan melalui komunikasi efek yang baik lebih besar untuk perintis pasar daripada pendatang kemudian. Budaya Perusahaan Budaya Sebuah organisasi adalah seperangkat kompleks keyakinan dan cara melakukan hal-hal yang mempengaruhi per¬spective organisasi itu sendiri dan dunia di sekitarnya. Sebuah elemen kunci dari budaya perusahaan adalah seperangkat aturan formal dan struktur yang mengatur cara orang berhubungan satu sama lain di tempat kerja. Lain adalah himpunan mitos dan tradisi yang membantu mendefinisikan ideologi organisasi (Mintzberg 1983). Sebagian besar literatur tentang budaya dan per¬formance perusahaan organisasi menunjukkan bahwa budaya dapat memiliki nilai signifi¬cant positif ekonomi bagi suatu perusahaan (Barney 1986a; Ouchi 1981; kesepakatan dan Kennedy 1982). Hipotesis budaya yang kuat menunjukkan bahwa perusahaan yang memiliki ciri khas yang kuat, nilai-nilai dan pola keyakinan bersama akan mengungguli or¬ganizations yang lemah pada dimensi ini (Dennison 1984). Budaya yang kuat dapat (1) membantu mencapai visi bersama dan keselarasan tujuan antara karyawan untuk memenuhi tujuan organiza¬tional (Wilkins dan Ouchi 1983); (2) memberdayakan employ¬ees untuk menjadi fleksibel dan mencapai tujuan organisasi (Pascale 1985); dan (3) energi karyawan dari sebuah organisasi. Sebuah studi baru-baru melaporkan bahwa perusahaan dengan budaya yang empha¬size konstituen kunci manajerial (pelanggan, stockhold¬ers, dan karyawan) dan kepemimpinan (di semua tingkatan) outper¬formed oleh perusahaan margin besar yang tidak memiliki sifat-sifat cul¬tural ( Kotter dan Heskett 1992). Studi lain baru-baru ini berfokus pada jenis budaya sebagai faktor penentu kinerja (Deshpande, Farley, dan Webster 1993) melaporkan bahwa perusahaan Japa¬nese dengan budaya perusahaan menekankan persaingan-tiveness (pasar) dan kewirausahaan ("adhocracies") mengungguli mereka didominasi oleh kekompakan internal yang ( klan) atau aturan (hirarki). Jasa yang terutama deliv¬ered oleh karyawan, "orang" komponen layanan de¬livery seperti yang dirasakan oleh pelanggan memainkan peran penting dalam diferensiasi layanan. Oleh karena itu, faktor penting yang endows organisasi layanan dengan keunggulan kompetitif adalah employ¬ees nya, dan cara mereka dipengaruhi oleh budaya organisasi. P: Semakin besar "orang" intensitas industri jasa, semakin besar pentingnya budaya sebagai sumber keunggulan com-petitive. Organisasi Keahlian / Produser Belajar / Pengalaman Effects13 belajar Organisasi, atau peningkatan keterampilan dan kemampuan yang dicapai melalui pembelajaran dalam perusahaan Mengingat bahwa keahlian organisasi dan teknologi informasi tampaknya sumber sama pentingnya keunggulan kompetitif di semua industri jasa, tidak ada proposisi formal disajikan dalam bagian yang ditujukan untuk sumber-sumber keunggulan kompetitif. 92 / Journal of Marketing, Oktober 1993 Reproduksi dengan izin dari pemilik hak cipta. Reproduksi lanjut dilarang tanpa izin