Cross-Cultural Training As the non-

Cross-Cultural Training
As the non-exhaustive list suggests, there are many types of ITAs and IDAs with different goals and objectives. From this list, the most frequently used and researched activity is cross-cultural training. Traditionally, multinational firms have used cross-cultural training to increase the knowledge and skills of international assignees to help them operate effectively in the unfamiliar host culture (Mendenhall, Kuhlmann, Stahl & Osland, 2002; Morris & Robie, 2001; Kealy & Protheroe, 1996).
A well-designed cross-cultural training initiative may enhance the learning process of the international assignee and thus facilitate effective cross-cultural interactions and cross-cultural adjustment (Black & Gregersen, 1991; Caligiuri, Phillips, Lazarova, Tarique, & Burgi, 2001). To understand the systematic approach to designing cross-cultural training initiatives, Tarique and Caligiuri (2003) propose a five-phase process as a general strategy to follow in designing effective cross-cultural training initiatives. The five phases are:
1) Identify the type of global assignment for which cross-cultural training is needed;
2) Determine the specific cross-cultural training needs (from the organization-level, assignment-level, and the individual-level);
3) Establish the goals and measures for determining cross-cultural training effectiveness;
4) Develop and deliver the cross-cultural training program; and,
5) Evaluate whether the cross-cultural training program was effective.

The first phase includes identifying the type of global assignment for which cross-cultural training is needed. Research has shown that there are different types of global assignments (e.g., Caligiuri & Lazarova, 2001; Hays, 1974; Oddou, 1991) and cross-cultural training will differ based on the goals required for the successful completion of each assignment (Tarique & Caligiuri, 2002; Tarique 2002 . The second phase determines the specific cross-cultural training needs. This involves conducting a cross-cultural training needs analysis across three levels: the organizational-level, the individual (or international assignee) level, and the assignment-level. The organizational-level analysis determines the organizational context for cross-cultural training. This analysis considers how cross-cultural training can assist both headquarters and subsidiaries in supporting the firm’s strategy. The individual (or international assignee) level analysis identifies any special needs that have to be addressed in cross-cultural training for the individuals, who are on the receiving end of the cross-cultural training, the international assignees themselves. This analysis includes examining the international assignee’s prior international experience, his or her existing levels of cross-cultural competencies, how he or she perceives the issues the cross-cultural training initiative is designed to address, and the needs of the international assignee’s entire family. The assignment-level analysis determines the crosscultural competencies required to effectively complete the given assignment. This includes identifying the important tasks required on the global assignment and the type of cross-cultural competencies needed to perform those tasks effectively.
Phase three involves establishing short-term goals and long-term goals for determining cross-cultural training effectiveness. Cross-cultural training goals should be stated in detailed and measurable terms (e.g., Noe, 2004). Short-term cross-cultural training goals can bring about cognitive, affective, and behavioral changes (Gudykunst, Guzley, & Hammer, 1996). Cognitive goals focus on helping international assignees understand the role of cultural values on behavior in the destination country, in both social and business contexts. Affective goals aim at helping international assignees effectively manage their attitude toward the new culture and successfully handle negative emotions. Behavioral goals help international assignees form adaptive behaviors by emphasizing the transnational skills international assignees require in order to successfully interact with individuals from other cultures. While the short-term goals of cross cultural training will vary from assignment to assignment, the long-term goal of many cross-cultural training initiatives is to improve the rate of cross-cultural adjustment. Improving cross-cultural adjustment is important for all international assignees and would generalize across assignments.
The fourth phase develops and delivers the cross-cultural training initiative. This phase involves determining the specific instructional content needed in order to achieve the stated goal and the methods to deliver the instructional content, and the sequencing of the training sessions. Based on the cross-cultural and intercultural communication research (e.g., Brislin, Cushner, Cherrie, & Yong, 1986; Copeland & Griggs, 1985; Harris & Moran, 1991), Harrison suggests that content structure should follow an integrated approach consisting of both general cultural orientation (to understand factors that may influence one's receptiveness to effective crosscultural interactions and to understand how cultures differ and the impact of these differences on international assignees) and specific cultural orientation (to help international assignees understand more about the specific culture to which they are being assigned).
Gudykunst, Guzley, and Hammer (1996) suggest that the methods to deliver the instructional content can be categorized into four categories:
1) Didactic culture general;
2) Didactic culture specific;
3) Experiential cultural general; and,
4) Experiential cultural specific.

Didactic culture general methods provide cultural general information to international assignees and include lectures, seminars, reading martial, discussions, videotapes, and culturegeneral assimilators. Didactic culture specific methods, in contrast, present information on a particular culture. Methods used in this category include area studies, videotapes, orientation briefings, case studies, and the like. Experiential cultural methods help international assignees experience the impact of cultural differences on their behaviours. Methods in this category include immersion programs or intensive workshops. Experiential culture-specific methods, in contrast, help international assignees experience and learn from interactions with individuals from the host culture. This approach generally includes methods like role-playing, look-see trips, in-country cultural coaching, and language training (Gudykunst, Guzley, & Hammer, 1996).
Lastly, phase five evaluates whether the cross-cultural training initiative was effective. Crosscultural training evaluation refers to the systematic process of gathering information necessary to determine the effectiveness of cross-cultural training. Cross-cultural training effectiveness is generally defined in terms of the benefits the international assignees receive from cross-cultural training and is determined by the extent to which international assignees have changed as a result of participating in cross-cultural training. The evaluation process involves establishing measures of effectiveness, and developing research designs to determine what changes (e.g., cognitive, affective, and behavioral) have occurred during the training. Results from the cross-cultural training evaluation should help the organization decide whether cross-cultural training should be continued in its current form or modified.
Future research on these proposed phases and the various categories of cross-cultural training content (proposed by Gudykunst, et al., 1996) is an important area for investigation. The optimal combination of delivery methods and content for producing the desired outcome has not yet been determined. For example, are some content areas better covered before (or while) an individual is experiencing a culture? Currently, many cross-cultural training programs are delivered prior to the international assignment – with questionable influence on adjustment (Mendenhall et al, 2004). Also, a better understanding of the limits and generalizability across organizational, cultural, national, and individual contexts for cross-cultural training is an important area to explore in future research.