Amartya Sen,

Amartya Sen, "Human Rights and Asia

Amartya Sen, "Human Rights and Asian Values," The New Republic, July 14-July 21, 1997

In 1776, just when the Declaration of Independence was being adopted in this country, Thomas Paine complained, in Common Sense, that Asia had "long expelled" freedom. In this lament, Paine saw Asia in company with much of the rest of the world (America, he hoped, would be different): "Freedom hath been hunted round the globe. Asia and Africa have long expelled her. Europe regards her as a stranger and England hath given her warning to depart." For Paine, political freedom and democracy were valuable anywhere, though they were being violated nearly everywhere.
The violation of freedom and democracy in different parts of the world continues today, if not as comprehensively as in Paine's time. There is a difference, though. A new class of arguments have emerged that deny the universal importance of these freedoms. The most prominent of these contentions is the claim that Asian values do not regard freedom to be important in the way that it is regarded in the West. Given this difference in value systems-the argument runsAsia must be faithful to its own system of philosophical and political priorities.
Cultural differences and value differences between Asia and the West were stressed by several official delegations at the World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna in 1993. The foreign minister of Singapore warned that "universal recognition of the ideal of human rights can be harmful if universalism is used to deny or mask the reality of diversity." The Chinese delegation played a leading role in emphasizing the regional differences, and in making sure that the prescriptive framework adopted in the declarations made room for regional diversity. The Chinese foreign minister even put on record the proposition, apparently applicable in China and elsewhere, that "Individuals must put the states' rights before their own."
I want to examine the thesis that Asian values are less supportive of freedom and more concerned with order and discipline, and that the claims of human rights in the areas of political and civil liberties, therefore, are less relevant and less appropriate in Asia than in the West. The defense of authoritarianism in Asia on the grounds of the special nature of Asian values calls for historical scrutiny, to which I shall presently turn. But there is also a different justification of authoritarian governance in Asia that has received attention recently. It argues for authoritarian governance in the interest of economic development. Lee Kuan Yew, the former prime minister of Singapore and a great champion of the idea of "Asian values," has defended authoritarian arrangements on the ground of their alleged effectiveness in promoting economic success.
Does authoritarianism really work so well? It is certainly true that some relatively authoritarian states (such as South Korea, Lee's Singapore, and post-reform China) have had faster rates of economic growth than many less authoritarian ones (such as India, Costa Rica or Jamaica). But the "Lee hypothesis" is based on very selective and limited information, rather than on any general statistical testing over the wide-ranging data that are available. We cannot really take the high economic growth of China or South Korea in Asia as "proof positive" that authoritarianism does better in promoting economic growth-any more than we can draw the opposite conclusion on the basis of the fact that Botswana, the fastest-growing African country (and one of the fastest growing countries in the world), has been a oasis of democracy in that unhappy continent. Much depends on the precise circumstances.
There is little general evidence, in fact, that authoritarian governance and the suppression of political and civil rights are really beneficial in encouraging economic development. The statistical picture is much more complicated. Systematic empirical studies give no real support to the claim that there is a general conflict between political rights and economic performances. The directional linkage seems to depend on many other circumstances, and while some statistical investigations note a weakly negative relation, others find a strongly positive one. On balance, the hypothesis that there is no relation between freedom and prosperity in either direction is hard to reject. Since political liberty has a significance of its own, the case for it remains untarnished.
There is also a more basic issue of research methodology. We must not only look at statistical connections, we must examine also the causal processes that are involved in economic growth and development. The economic policies and circumstances that led to the success of east Asian economies are by now reasonably well understood. While different empirical studies have varied in emphasis, there is by now a fairly agreed-upon list of "helpful policies," and they include openness to competition, the use of international markets, a high level of literacy and education, successful land reforms, and public provision of incentives for investment, exporting, and industrialization. There is nothing whatsoever to indicate that any of these policies is inconsistent with greater democracy, that any one of them had to be sustained by the elements of authoritarianism that happened to be present in South Korea or Singapore or China. The recent Indian experience also shows that what is needed for generating faster economic growth is a friendlier economic climate rather than a harsher political system.
It is also important, in this context, to look at the connection between political and civil rights, on the one hand, and the prevention of major disasters, on the other. Political and civil rights give people the opportunity to draw attention forcefully to general needs and to demand appropriate public action. The governmental response to acute suffering often depends on the pressure that is put on it, and this is where the exercise of political rights (voting, criticizing, protesting, and so on) can make a real difference. I have discussed (in these pages and in my book Resources, Values, and Development) the remarkable fact that, in the terrible history of famines in the world, no substantial famine has ever occurred in any independent and democratic country with a relatively free press. Whether we look at famines in Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, or other dictatorial regimes, or in the Soviet Union in the 1930s, or in China from 1958 to 1961 (at the failure of the Great Leap Forward, when between 23 and 30 million people died), or currently in North Korea, we do not find exceptions to this rule. (It is true that Ireland was part of democratic Britain during its famine of the 1840s, but the extent of London's political dominance over the Irish was so strong-and the social distance so great and so old, as illustrated by Spenser's severely unfriendly description of the Irish in the sixteenth century-that the English rule over Ireland was, for all practical purposes, a colonial rule.)
While this connection is clearest in the case of famine prevention, the positive role of political and civil rights applies to the prevention of economic and social disasters generally. When things go fine and everything is roufinely good, this consequence of democracy may not be sorely missed. But it comes into its own when things get fouled up, for one reason or another. Then the political incentives provided by democratic governance acquire great practical value. To concentrate only on economic incentives (which the market system provides) while ignoring political incentives (which democratic systems provide) is to opt for a deeply unbalanced set of ground rules.

II.
turn now to the nature and the relevance of Asian values. This is not an easy exercise, for various reasons. The size of Asia is itself a problem. Asia is where about 60 percent of the world's population lives. What can we take to be the values of so vast a region, with so much diversity? It is important to state at the outset that there are no quintessential values that separate the Asians as a group from people in the rest of the world and which fit all parts of this immensely large and heterogeneous population. The temptation to see Asia as a single unit reveals a distinctly Eurocentric perspective. Indeed, the term "the Orient," which was widely used for a long time to mean essentially what Asia means today, referred to the positional vision of Europe, as it contemplated the direction of the rising sun.
In practice, the advocates of "Asian values" have tended to look primarily at east Asia as the region of their particular applicability. The generalization about the contrast between the West and Asia often concentrates on the land to the east of Thailand, though there is an even more ambitious claim that the rest of Asia is rather "similar." Lee Kuan Yew outlines "the fundamental difference between Western concepts of society and government and East Asian concepts" by explaining that "when I say East Asians, I mean Korea, Japan, China, Vietnam, as distinct from Southeast Asia, which is a mix between the Sinic and the Indian, though Indian culture itself emphasizes similar values."
In fact, even east Asia itself has much diversity, and there are many variations to be found between Japan and China and Korea and other parts of east Asia. Various cultural influences from inside and outside this region have affected human lives over the history of this large territory. These influences still survive in a variety of ways. Thus, my copy of Houghton Mifflin's Almanac describes the religion of the 124 million Japanese in the following way: 112 million Shintoist, 93 million Buddhist. Cultures and traditions overlap in regions such as east Asia and even within countries such as Japan or China or Korea, and attempts at generalization about "Asian values" (with forceful and often brutal implications for m
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Amartya Sen, "Human Rights and Asian Values," The New Republic, July 14-July 21, 1997In 1776, just when the Declaration of Independence was being adopted in this country, Thomas Paine complained, in Common Sense, that Asia had "long expelled" freedom. In this lament, Paine saw Asia in company with much of the rest of the world (America, he hoped, would be different): "Freedom hath been hunted round the globe. Asia and Africa have long expelled her. Europe regards her as a stranger and England hath given her warning to depart." For Paine, political freedom and democracy were valuable anywhere, though they were being violated nearly everywhere. The violation of freedom and democracy in different parts of the world continues today, if not as comprehensively as in Paine's time. There is a difference, though. A new class of arguments have emerged that deny the universal importance of these freedoms. The most prominent of these contentions is the claim that Asian values do not regard freedom to be important in the way that it is regarded in the West. Given this difference in value systems-the argument runsAsia must be faithful to its own system of philosophical and political priorities. Cultural differences and value differences between Asia and the West were stressed by several official delegations at the World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna in 1993. The foreign minister of Singapore warned that "universal recognition of the ideal of human rights can be harmful if universalism is used to deny or mask the reality of diversity." The Chinese delegation played a leading role in emphasizing the regional differences, and in making sure that the prescriptive framework adopted in the declarations made room for regional diversity. The Chinese foreign minister even put on record the proposition, apparently applicable in China and elsewhere, that "Individuals must put the states' rights before their own." I want to examine the thesis that Asian values are less supportive of freedom and more concerned with order and discipline, and that the claims of human rights in the areas of political and civil liberties, therefore, are less relevant and less appropriate in Asia than in the West. The defense of authoritarianism in Asia on the grounds of the special nature of Asian values calls for historical scrutiny, to which I shall presently turn. But there is also a different justification of authoritarian governance in Asia that has received attention recently. It argues for authoritarian governance in the interest of economic development. Lee Kuan Yew, the former prime minister of Singapore and a great champion of the idea of "Asian values," has defended authoritarian arrangements on the ground of their alleged effectiveness in promoting economic success. Does authoritarianism really work so well? It is certainly true that some relatively authoritarian states (such as South Korea, Lee's Singapore, and post-reform China) have had faster rates of economic growth than many less authoritarian ones (such as India, Costa Rica or Jamaica). But the "Lee hypothesis" is based on very selective and limited information, rather than on any general statistical testing over the wide-ranging data that are available. We cannot really take the high economic growth of China or South Korea in Asia as "proof positive" that authoritarianism does better in promoting economic growth-any more than we can draw the opposite conclusion on the basis of the fact that Botswana, the fastest-growing African country (and one of the fastest growing countries in the world), has been a oasis of democracy in that unhappy continent. Much depends on the precise circumstances. There is little general evidence, in fact, that authoritarian governance and the suppression of political and civil rights are really beneficial in encouraging economic development. The statistical picture is much more complicated. Systematic empirical studies give no real support to the claim that there is a general conflict between political rights and economic performances. The directional linkage seems to depend on many other circumstances, and while some statistical investigations note a weakly negative relation, others find a strongly positive one. On balance, the hypothesis that there is no relation between freedom and prosperity in either direction is hard to reject. Since political liberty has a significance of its own, the case for it remains untarnished. There is also a more basic issue of research methodology. We must not only look at statistical connections, we must examine also the causal processes that are involved in economic growth and development. The economic policies and circumstances that led to the success of east Asian economies are by now reasonably well understood. While different empirical studies have varied in emphasis, there is by now a fairly agreed-upon list of "helpful policies," and they include openness to competition, the use of international markets, a high level of literacy and education, successful land reforms, and public provision of incentives for investment, exporting, and industrialization. There is nothing whatsoever to indicate that any of these policies is inconsistent with greater democracy, that any one of them had to be sustained by the elements of authoritarianism that happened to be present in South Korea or Singapore or China. The recent Indian experience also shows that what is needed for generating faster economic growth is a friendlier economic climate rather than a harsher political system. It is also important, in this context, to look at the connection between political and civil rights, on the one hand, and the prevention of major disasters, on the other. Political and civil rights give people the opportunity to draw attention forcefully to general needs and to demand appropriate public action. The governmental response to acute suffering often depends on the pressure that is put on it, and this is where the exercise of political rights (voting, criticizing, protesting, and so on) can make a real difference. I have discussed (in these pages and in my book Resources, Values, and Development) the remarkable fact that, in the terrible history of famines in the world, no substantial famine has ever occurred in any independent and democratic country with a relatively free press. Whether we look at famines in Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, or other dictatorial regimes, or in the Soviet Union in the 1930s, or in China from 1958 to 1961 (at the failure of the Great Leap Forward, when between 23 and 30 million people died), or currently in North Korea, we do not find exceptions to this rule. (It is true that Ireland was part of democratic Britain during its famine of the 1840s, but the extent of London's political dominance over the Irish was so strong-and the social distance so great and so old, as illustrated by Spenser's severely unfriendly description of the Irish in the sixteenth century-that the English rule over Ireland was, for all practical purposes, a colonial rule.) While this connection is clearest in the case of famine prevention, the positive role of political and civil rights applies to the prevention of economic and social disasters generally. When things go fine and everything is roufinely good, this consequence of democracy may not be sorely missed. But it comes into its own when things get fouled up, for one reason or another. Then the political incentives provided by democratic governance acquire great practical value. To concentrate only on economic incentives (which the market system provides) while ignoring political incentives (which democratic systems provide) is to opt for a deeply unbalanced set of ground rules.

II.
turn now to the nature and the relevance of Asian values. This is not an easy exercise, for various reasons. The size of Asia is itself a problem. Asia is where about 60 percent of the world's population lives. What can we take to be the values of so vast a region, with so much diversity? It is important to state at the outset that there are no quintessential values that separate the Asians as a group from people in the rest of the world and which fit all parts of this immensely large and heterogeneous population. The temptation to see Asia as a single unit reveals a distinctly Eurocentric perspective. Indeed, the term "the Orient," which was widely used for a long time to mean essentially what Asia means today, referred to the positional vision of Europe, as it contemplated the direction of the rising sun.
In practice, the advocates of "Asian values" have tended to look primarily at east Asia as the region of their particular applicability. The generalization about the contrast between the West and Asia often concentrates on the land to the east of Thailand, though there is an even more ambitious claim that the rest of Asia is rather "similar." Lee Kuan Yew outlines "the fundamental difference between Western concepts of society and government and East Asian concepts" by explaining that "when I say East Asians, I mean Korea, Japan, China, Vietnam, as distinct from Southeast Asia, which is a mix between the Sinic and the Indian, though Indian culture itself emphasizes similar values."
In fact, even east Asia itself has much diversity, and there are many variations to be found between Japan and China and Korea and other parts of east Asia. Various cultural influences from inside and outside this region have affected human lives over the history of this large territory. These influences still survive in a variety of ways. Thus, my copy of Houghton Mifflin's Almanac describes the religion of the 124 million Japanese in the following way: 112 million Shintoist, 93 million Buddhist. Cultures and traditions overlap in regions such as east Asia and even within countries such as Japan or China or Korea, and attempts at generalization about "Asian values" (with forceful and often brutal implications for m
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Amartya Sen, "Hak Asasi Manusia dan Nilai Asia," The New Republic, 14 Juli-21 Juli 1997 Pada tahun 1776, hanya ketika Deklarasi Kemerdekaan diadopsi di negeri ini, Thomas Paine mengeluh, di Common Sense, bahwa Asia memiliki " panjang diusir "kebebasan. Dalam ratapan ini, Paine melihat Asia di perusahaan dengan banyak dari sisa dunia (Amerika, ia berharap, akan berbeda):. "Kebebasan Maha diburu putaran dunia Asia dan Afrika telah lama mengusir dia Eropa menganggap dirinya sebagai. asing dan Inggris telah memberikan peringatan dia untuk pergi. " Untuk Paine, kebebasan politik dan demokrasi yang berharga di mana saja, meskipun mereka sedang dilanggar hampir di mana-mana. Pelanggaran kebebasan dan demokrasi di berbagai belahan dunia terus hari ini, jika tidak komprehensif seperti pada waktu Paine. Ada perbedaan, meskipun. Sebuah kelas baru argumen telah muncul yang menyangkal pentingnya universal kebebasan tersebut. Yang paling menonjol dari perselisihan tersebut adalah klaim bahwa nilai-nilai Asia tidak menganggap kebebasan untuk menjadi penting dalam cara yang dianggap di Barat. Mengingat perbedaan dalam sistem nilai-the runsAsia argumen harus setia kepada sistem sendiri prioritas filosofis dan politik. Perbedaan budaya dan perbedaan nilai antara Asia dan Barat yang ditekankan oleh beberapa delegasi resmi pada Konferensi Dunia tentang Hak Asasi Manusia di Wina tahun 1993 . Menteri luar negeri Singapura memperingatkan bahwa "pengakuan universal ideal hak asasi manusia bisa berbahaya jika universalisme digunakan untuk menolak atau menutupi realitas keragaman." Delegasi China memainkan peran utama dalam menekankan perbedaan regional, dan dalam memastikan bahwa kerangka preskriptif diadopsi dalam deklarasi membuat ruang bagi keragaman daerah. Menteri Cina asing bahkan menempatkan pada catatan proposisi, tampaknya berlaku di Cina dan di tempat lain, bahwa "Individu harus menempatkan hak negara-negara 'sebelum mereka sendiri." Saya ingin menguji tesis bahwa nilai-nilai Asia kurang mendukung kebebasan dan lebih peduli dengan ketertiban dan disiplin, dan bahwa klaim hak asasi manusia di bidang kebebasan politik dan sipil, oleh karena itu, kurang relevan dan kurang tepat di Asia daripada di Barat. Pertahanan otoriterisme di Asia atas dasar sifat khusus dari nilai-nilai Asia panggilan untuk pengawasan sejarah, yang saya akan saat berbelok. Tapi ada juga justifikasi yang berbeda dari pemerintahan otoriter di Asia yang telah menerima perhatian baru-baru ini. Ini berpendapat untuk pemerintahan otoriter untuk kepentingan pembangunan ekonomi. Lee Kuan Yew, mantan perdana menteri Singapura dan juara besar ide "nilai-nilai Asia," telah membela pengaturan otoriter atas dasar dugaan efektivitas mereka dalam mempromosikan keberhasilan ekonomi. Apakah otoritarianisme benar-benar bekerja dengan baik? Memang benar bahwa beberapa negara yang relatif otoriter (seperti Korea Selatan, Lee Singapura, dan pasca-reformasi Cina) memiliki tingkat yang lebih cepat dari pertumbuhan ekonomi daripada banyak yang kurang otoriter (seperti India, Kosta Rika atau Jamaika). Tapi "Lee hipotesis" didasarkan pada informasi yang sangat selektif dan terbatas, bukan pada setiap pengujian statistik umum atas data luas yang tersedia. Kita tidak bisa benar-benar mengambil pertumbuhan ekonomi yang tinggi China atau Korea Selatan di Asia sebagai "bukti positif" otoritarianisme yang tidak lebih baik dalam meningkatkan pertumbuhan ekonomi-apa lebih dari yang kita dapat menarik kesimpulan berlawanan atas dasar fakta bahwa Botswana, paling cepat yang tumbuh negara Afrika (dan salah satu negara dengan pertumbuhan tercepat di dunia), telah menjadi oase demokrasi di benua bahagia. Banyak tergantung pada keadaan yang tepat. Ada bukti umum kecil, pada kenyataannya, bahwa pemerintahan otoriter dan penindasan hak-hak politik dan sipil yang benar-benar bermanfaat dalam mendorong pembangunan ekonomi. Gambaran statistik jauh lebih rumit. Studi empiris yang sistematis tidak memberikan dukungan nyata untuk klaim bahwa ada konflik umum antara hak-hak politik dan pertunjukan ekonomi. Hubungan directional tampaknya tergantung pada banyak keadaan lain, dan sementara beberapa penyelidikan statistik mencatat hubungan lemah negatif, orang lain menemukan satu sangat positif. Pada keseimbangan, hipotesis bahwa tidak ada hubungan antara kebebasan dan kemakmuran di kedua arah sulit untuk menolak. Sejak kebebasan politik memiliki makna tersendiri, kasus itu tetap tak bernoda. Ada juga masalah yang lebih mendasar dari metodologi penelitian. Kita tidak hanya harus melihat koneksi statistik, kita harus memeriksa juga proses kausal yang terlibat dalam pertumbuhan ekonomi dan pembangunan. Kebijakan ekonomi dan keadaan yang menyebabkan keberhasilan ekonomi Asia timur yang sekarang dipahami cukup baik. Sementara studi empiris yang berbeda bervariasi dalam penekanan, ada sekarang cukup disepakati daftar "kebijakan membantu," dan mereka termasuk keterbukaan terhadap kompetisi, penggunaan pasar internasional, tingkat tinggi melek huruf dan pendidikan, reformasi tanah sukses, dan penyediaan publik insentif untuk investasi, ekspor, dan industrialisasi. Tidak ada apa pun untuk menunjukkan bahwa setiap kebijakan ini tidak konsisten dengan demokrasi yang lebih besar, yang salah satu dari mereka harus ditopang oleh unsur-unsur otoritarianisme yang kebetulan hadir di Korea Selatan atau Singapura atau China. Pengalaman India baru-baru ini juga menunjukkan bahwa apa yang dibutuhkan untuk menghasilkan pertumbuhan ekonomi yang lebih cepat adalah iklim ekonomi ramah daripada sistem politik yang lebih keras. Hal ini juga penting, dalam konteks ini, untuk melihat hubungan antara hak-hak politik dan sipil, pada satu tangan, dan pencegahan bencana besar, di sisi lain. Hak-hak politik dan sipil memberi orang kesempatan untuk menarik perhatian tegas dengan kebutuhan umum dan untuk menuntut aksi publik yang tepat. Tanggapan pemerintah terhadap penderitaan akut sering tergantung pada tekanan yang diletakkan di atasnya, dan ini adalah di mana pelaksanaan hak politik (suara, mengkritik, memprotes, dan sebagainya) dapat membuat perbedaan nyata. Saya telah membahas (di halaman ini dan di saya Resources buku, Nilai, dan Pembangunan) fakta luar biasa bahwa, dalam sejarah mengerikan kelaparan di dunia, tidak ada kelaparan besar yang pernah terjadi di negara independen dan demokratis dengan pers yang relatif bebas . Apakah kita melihat kelaparan di Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, atau rezim diktator lainnya, atau di Uni Soviet di tahun 1930-an, atau di Cina 1958-1961 (di kegagalan Lompatan Jauh ke Depan, ketika antara 23 dan 30 juta orang meninggal), atau saat di Korea Utara, kita tidak menemukan pengecualian untuk aturan ini. (Memang benar bahwa Irlandia adalah bagian dari Inggris demokratis selama kelaparan yang dari tahun 1840-an, tetapi sejauh mana dominasi politik London atas Irlandia begitu kuat-dan jarak sosial begitu besar dan begitu tua, seperti yang digambarkan oleh penjelasan sangat ramah Spenser tentang Irlandia di keenam belas abad bahwa aturan bahasa Inggris atas Irlandia adalah, untuk semua tujuan praktis, aturan kolonial.) Sementara hubungan ini adalah yang paling jelas dalam kasus pencegahan kelaparan, peran positif hak-hak politik dan sipil berlaku untuk pencegahan bencana ekonomi dan sosial secara umum. Bila ada sesuatu yang baik dan semuanya roufinely baik, konsekuensi demokrasi ini mungkin tidak sangat dirindukan. Tapi datang ke dalam sendiri ketika hal-hal mendapatkan diganjal, untuk satu alasan atau yang lain. Kemudian insentif politik yang diberikan oleh pemerintahan demokratis memperoleh nilai praktis yang besar. Berkonsentrasi hanya pada insentif ekonomi (yang sistem pasar memberikan) sementara mengabaikan insentif politik (yang menyediakan sistem demokrasi) adalah untuk memilih satu set sangat tidak seimbang dari aturan-aturan dasar. II. sekarang beralih sifat dan relevansi nilai-nilai Asia. Ini bukan latihan yang mudah, karena berbagai alasan. Ukuran Asia itu sendiri masalah. Asia adalah di mana sekitar 60 persen dari populasi dunia hidup. Apa yang bisa kita ambil untuk menjadi nilai-nilai yang begitu luas daerah, dengan begitu banyak keanekaragaman? Hal ini penting untuk menyatakan sejak awal bahwa tidak ada nilai-nilai klasik yang memisahkan Asia sebagai sebuah kelompok dari orang-orang di seluruh dunia dan yang cocok untuk semua bagian dari penduduk sangat besar dan heterogen ini. Godaan untuk melihat Asia sebagai satu kesatuan mengungkapkan perspektif jelas Eurocentric. Memang, istilah "Orient," yang secara luas digunakan untuk waktu yang lama untuk dasarnya berarti apa artinya Asia hari ini, mengacu pada visi posisi Eropa, karena merenungkan arah matahari terbit. Dalam prakteknya, para pendukung " nilai-nilai Asia "cenderung melihat terutama di Asia timur sebagai wilayah dari penerapan khusus mereka. Generalisasi tentang kontras antara Barat dan Asia sering berkonsentrasi pada tanah di sebelah timur Thailand, meskipun ada bahkan lebih ambisius klaim bahwa seluruh Asia agak "mirip." Lee Kuan Yew menguraikan "perbedaan mendasar antara konsep-konsep Barat masyarakat dan pemerintah dan konsep Asia Timur" dengan menjelaskan bahwa "ketika saya mengatakan orang Asia Timur, maksudku Korea, Jepang, Cina, Vietnam, berbeda dari Asia Tenggara, yang merupakan campuran antara Sinic dan India, meskipun budaya India sendiri menekankan nilai-nilai yang sama. " Bahkan, Asia bahkan timur sendiri memiliki banyak keragaman, dan ada banyak variasi dapat ditemukan antara Jepang dan Cina dan Korea dan bagian lain di Asia timur. Berbagai pengaruh budaya dari dalam dan luar wilayah ini telah mempengaruhi kehidupan manusia sepanjang sejarah wilayah besar ini. Pengaruh ini masih bertahan di berbagai cara. Dengan demikian, salinan dari Houghton Mifflin Almanac menggambarkan agama 124 juta Jepang dengan cara berikut: 112 juta Shinto, 93 juta Buddha. Budaya dan tradisi tumpang tindih di daerah seperti Asia timur dan bahkan di dalam negara-negara seperti Jepang atau China atau Korea, dan upaya generalisasi tentang "nilai-nilai Asia" (dengan implikasi kuat dan sering brutal untuk m














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