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Global hypomethylation of DNA has been demonstrated in various human tumors (7, 10) and during rat or mouse hepatocarcinogenesis (9, 25). DNA hypomethylation is, in fact, thought to be an early event in human carcinogenesis (7) and is associated with genetic instability in cancer cells (28). Similarly, changes in DNA methylation patterns are common in cultured tumor cell lines and primary tumor cells (5, 6). Our results show that genomic DNA methylation was substantially decreased concurrently with arsenic transformation, and that these decreases are dose related, dependent on exposure intervals, and inheritable. All these factors are consistent with DNA methylation as an epigenetic mechanism for carcinogenesis in which aberrant gene expression could alter phenotype in the absence of gene mutation (25, 29–31). Alterations in DNA methylation patterns can be fixed during DNA replication and evidence suggests that methylation status of a gene can participate, with other gene control mechanisms, to balance the transcriptional level of the gene (25). Hypomethylation is associated with activation of various oncogenes during cancer development, such as c-myc, c-fos, and H-ras in human and rat liver tumors (5, 6) and raf (32) in mouse liver tumors. Additionally, c-myc overexpression is correlated with its specific hypomethylation in HL-60 cells (33) and in early rat liver tumors (34). Chronic depletion of cellular SAM contents or blockade of SAH hydrolysis, which both result in reductions of SAM/SAH ratio, also result in an overexpression of c-myc (33, 34). DNA hypomethylation occurring during hepatocarcinogenesis with nongenotoxic agents can similarly facilitate oncogene activation (25). Although acute arsenic exposure induces expression of a variety of genes (35–39), including oncogenes, it is clear that such activations are not due to the direct DNA effects such as base mutation. Arsenic, at nontoxic doses, is typically nongenotoxic and evidence indicates the metalloid generally does not cause mutations in either mammalian or bacterial systems (11–14). The evidence for the existence of a threshold for arsenic carcinogenesis in human populations (40, 41) is similarly in keeping with an epigenetic mechanism of carcinogenesis.The expression of MT genes is clearly dependent on DNA methylation status (8) and the gene activity and responsiveness to inducing stimuli are dramatically increased after exposure to hypomethylating agents, such as the pyrimidine analogue 5-aza-cytidine (8, 21, 40). If the 5′-flanking regions of the MT gene are highly methylated, it will be poorly expressed and minimally reactive to inducing stimuli, making the inducibility of this gene a strong indicator of DNA hypomethylation, as recently demonstrated (42, 43). Our results clearly indicate that in arsenic-transformed cells, the MT gene is hyperinducible, indicative of hypomethylation as a basis for aberrant gene expression. In sharp contrast, the MT gene is actually down-regulated in liver tumors induced with the highly mutagenic, alkylating carcinogen, N-nitrosodiethylamine (44, 45), or in TRL 1215 cells that have undergone spontaneous transformation with repeated passage, an event likely due to spontaneous mutation and subsequent clonal expansion (46). This indicates that the hyperinducibility of the MT gene seen in association with arsenic-induced transformation is not simply due to DNA hypomethylation occurring during rapid cell proliferation from limitations in the capacity or fidelity of DNA maintenance methylation (47). Taken together, these results strongly point toward hypomethylation of DNA as the causative factor in arsenic-induced malignant transformation.
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