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Chapter 19Lecturing and ExplainingO
Chapter 19
Lecturing and Explaining
Overview
Objectives of the lecture method
Empirical Evidence on the effectiveness of Lectures
Comparasions of the Lectures method with other Methods
Thought Processes in Lectures
Proper Uses of Lectures
Preparation for Lecturing
The Introduction to the Lecture
Establishing Teacher-Students Relationships
Gaining Student Attention
Making Reasonable Assumptions About Students’ Interests
Providing Motivational Cues
Exposing Essential Content
Advance Organizers
Prestesting and Prompting Awareness of Relevant Knowledge or Experience
Recap
The Body of the Lecture
Covering the Content
Providing a Logical Organization
Component (Part-Whole) Relationships
Sequential Relationships
Material to purpose (Relevance) Relationship
Transitional, or Connective, Relationships
The Comparasion
Combination Devices
A Model for Organizing Explainations
Making the Organization Explicit
Explicitness
The Rule-Example-Rule Technique
Explaining Links
Verbal “Markers of Importance”
The Stuctural Support
Maintaining Attention
Varying the stimuli
Changing Communication Channels
Physical Activity
Using Humor
Showing Enthusiasm
Question Inserted into Lectures
Note-taking
Handouts
Being Clear
Examples
Avoiding Vagueness Terms
The Conclusion of the Lecture
Function of the Conclusion
Interlecture Structuring
Caution About the Lecture Method
Summary
Overview
A great deal of teaching still takes the form of solo performance. When Lecturing, explaining, pointing out relationships, giving examples, or correcting errors, teachers often launch into monologue. From one student to a few hundred may be present to see and hear you for anywhere from 30 seconds to 60 minutes. Are you emotionally ready for this kind of attention from your students? Are you prepare to instruct them as well as posible? Do you know how to establish rapport with them? Can you motivate them to pay attention to what you are saying? Can you organise your thoughts coherently, and should you share that organization with your students? Are you able to conclude your solo performance so that more learning and higher student satisfaction will occur? This chapter on lecturing and explaining should help you in dealing with these problems.
You will now learn about both lectures (the relatively long, uninterupted, formal discourses frequently used by the college or university teacher) and explainations (the shorter discourses, lasting, say, 30 seconds to 5 minutes, heard frequently in smaller classes or those below the college level). We deal in turn with the objectives of the lecture method, the lecturer’s preparation, and the ways in which he or she should give the introduction, body, and conclusion of the lecture.
OBJECTIVES OF THE LECTURE METHOD
Samuel Johnson, the great English literary figure, was quoted in 1799 by his biographer James Boswell as saying “ Lectures were once useful; but now when all can read, and books are so numerous, lecturers are unnecessary. If your attention fails, and you miss a part of lecture, it is lost; you can not go back as you do upon the book” (Boswell, 1799; 1953). The point has often been made.
McLeish (1976) reviewed criticsms over several centuries. Lectures have been critized as being anachronisms since the invention of printing, as permitting the passivity of listeners, and as limiting the student to note taking, instead of bringing students into more active contact with their curricula. It is nnot unusual to read such items as a student’s editorial about “our absurd lecture system” (Stanford Daily, April 19, 1963, p.2) or “twenty five Harvard medical students say their lectures are dull and a waste of time” (Associated Press, January 31, 1966),or a lament that “only a very small number of students ever spoke or raised questions” (Stanford Daily, January 7, 1981, p.4).
But lecturing has also been defended as valuable in surveying a whole field of knowledge through the medium of living personality, in relating this body of knowledge to the primary aims of life, and in arousing active interest that leads to comprehension on the part of the student. Many students do not learn effectively through reading, and the lecture can introduce them to the subject matter. The lecturer can repeat material in different words when necessary, whereas books can provide only one wording of explaination. Complex materials, especially the most recent ones that are not yet incorporated into textbooks, can be set forth efficiently in lectures. Lectures can compensate for the overabundance of books in some fields and the lack of books in others. The lecturer can give a frame work, overview, and criticism unlike that found in any available printed material. The lecturer can provide aesthetic pleasure and communicate enthusiasm to a far greater degree that can the printed page, just as seeing and hearing a play have advantages over readingit. Lectures can be better prepared and more carefully planned than the extemporaneous remarks made to students in a discussion (the Hale Committe, cited in McLeish, 1976, p.258).
So it may be difficult to say anything new for or against the lecture method. One intriguing question is. Why has the lecture method persisted despite shortcomings that have been evident for centuries? The answer may be found in administrative factors rather than in learning and teaching factors. First, the lecture method is cheap because the number of students per teacher can be extremely large. Second, the lecture method is flexible since it can be readily adapted, on short notice, to a particular audience, subject matter, time limit, and set of equipment. The lecture method can also be adapted to the teacher’s schedule to a degree that printed and programmed teaching materials do not allow. Teachers cannot always plan ahead sufficiently to have materials run off on duplicating machine. Sometimes sheer in efficiency, of an all-too-human kind, prevents teachers from putting on paper and getting printed exactly the selection of ideas, from many sources and in a hitherto unprinted form, that they wish to present. No teaching method so adaptable will disappear in favor of methods that require more rigorous planning and usable only with certain kinds of proups, subject matter, time intervals, or equipment ( that is, projectors, books, audio or vidio record players, or computers).
Futher, the lecture method provides teacher and students with kind of reinforcement not available in other educational procedures. Teachers are rewarded by the attention they receive from students if they are lecturing at all effectively. So a professor of art wrote:
I enjoy the lecture method. It is the most dramatic way of presenting to the largest number of students a critical distillation of ideas and information on a subject in the shortest possible time. The bigger the class the better I perform intellectually. How else in teaching you can share with so many a lifetime of looking at and loving art? You stand on a stage in front of a screen on which the whole history of art is projected. You can be an explorer of African art, an interpreter of Greek sculptures, a spokesman for cathedral builders, an analyst of Picasso and philosopher of Sung painting. No other subject is as visually exciting in the classroom, and this is what keeps me turned on lecture after lecture, year after year. With that supporting cast and if he knew his line, who wouldn’t want to perform in front of a large audience? (Else, 1969, p. 21)
Finally, students may be reinforced by the warmth, humor, drama, intensity, logic, enthusiasm, and attention- to say nothing of knowledge and comprehension-that an effective lecturer bestows upon them. Students in the lecture hall may obtain a sense of security through being assured that their own attendance and attention are appropriate. That is, the lecture situation can tell students that they are doing the right thing at tyhe right time by being at a lecture, paying attention, perhaps taking notes, and responding with interest or boredom, in the same way that many other students are responding at the moment. The effectiveness of teaching methods is often measured by how much students learn in the form of knowledge and comprehension of a subject matter. But the lecture situation may also provide social reinforcement, aesthetic pleasure, and emotional reassurance of one’s own propriety- akind of coping with the essensial loneliness of the human condition. These may also be outcomes that account for the lecture method’s validity.
Empirical Evidence on the Effectiveness of Lectures
Despite all these possible advantages, the lecture method would probably have disappeared if experience and research had indicated that it is completely ineffective. But such evidence has not been forthcoming. Scores of experiments have been performed.
Comparisons of Lectures with other Methods in these experiments, students taught by the lecture method have been compared, on the basis of their achievement on final examination, with students taught by other methods, especially the discussion method. The overall verdict is that the lecture method is just about as effective, by and large, as the other methods. Dubin and Taveggia (1968) reviewed the data (rather than merely the conclusion) of nearly 100 studies over a 40-year period. They tallied the result of 88 independent comparasons of scores on final examination of students taught by the lecture and discussion methods, as reported in 36 experimental studies. Of these, 51 percent favored the lecture method, and 49 percent favored the discussion method. Dubin and Taveggia also examined the average scores on the final examination of students taught by these two methods. The differences averaged so close to zero as to be attributable to chance.
McKeachi and Kulik (1975) tried a different approach in examining these studies. They compared the lecture and discussion methods on thre
Lecturing and Explaining
Overview
Objectives of the lecture method
Empirical Evidence on the effectiveness of Lectures
Comparasions of the Lectures method with other Methods
Thought Processes in Lectures
Proper Uses of Lectures
Preparation for Lecturing
The Introduction to the Lecture
Establishing Teacher-Students Relationships
Gaining Student Attention
Making Reasonable Assumptions About Students’ Interests
Providing Motivational Cues
Exposing Essential Content
Advance Organizers
Prestesting and Prompting Awareness of Relevant Knowledge or Experience
Recap
The Body of the Lecture
Covering the Content
Providing a Logical Organization
Component (Part-Whole) Relationships
Sequential Relationships
Material to purpose (Relevance) Relationship
Transitional, or Connective, Relationships
The Comparasion
Combination Devices
A Model for Organizing Explainations
Making the Organization Explicit
Explicitness
The Rule-Example-Rule Technique
Explaining Links
Verbal “Markers of Importance”
The Stuctural Support
Maintaining Attention
Varying the stimuli
Changing Communication Channels
Physical Activity
Using Humor
Showing Enthusiasm
Question Inserted into Lectures
Note-taking
Handouts
Being Clear
Examples
Avoiding Vagueness Terms
The Conclusion of the Lecture
Function of the Conclusion
Interlecture Structuring
Caution About the Lecture Method
Summary
Overview
A great deal of teaching still takes the form of solo performance. When Lecturing, explaining, pointing out relationships, giving examples, or correcting errors, teachers often launch into monologue. From one student to a few hundred may be present to see and hear you for anywhere from 30 seconds to 60 minutes. Are you emotionally ready for this kind of attention from your students? Are you prepare to instruct them as well as posible? Do you know how to establish rapport with them? Can you motivate them to pay attention to what you are saying? Can you organise your thoughts coherently, and should you share that organization with your students? Are you able to conclude your solo performance so that more learning and higher student satisfaction will occur? This chapter on lecturing and explaining should help you in dealing with these problems.
You will now learn about both lectures (the relatively long, uninterupted, formal discourses frequently used by the college or university teacher) and explainations (the shorter discourses, lasting, say, 30 seconds to 5 minutes, heard frequently in smaller classes or those below the college level). We deal in turn with the objectives of the lecture method, the lecturer’s preparation, and the ways in which he or she should give the introduction, body, and conclusion of the lecture.
OBJECTIVES OF THE LECTURE METHOD
Samuel Johnson, the great English literary figure, was quoted in 1799 by his biographer James Boswell as saying “ Lectures were once useful; but now when all can read, and books are so numerous, lecturers are unnecessary. If your attention fails, and you miss a part of lecture, it is lost; you can not go back as you do upon the book” (Boswell, 1799; 1953). The point has often been made.
McLeish (1976) reviewed criticsms over several centuries. Lectures have been critized as being anachronisms since the invention of printing, as permitting the passivity of listeners, and as limiting the student to note taking, instead of bringing students into more active contact with their curricula. It is nnot unusual to read such items as a student’s editorial about “our absurd lecture system” (Stanford Daily, April 19, 1963, p.2) or “twenty five Harvard medical students say their lectures are dull and a waste of time” (Associated Press, January 31, 1966),or a lament that “only a very small number of students ever spoke or raised questions” (Stanford Daily, January 7, 1981, p.4).
But lecturing has also been defended as valuable in surveying a whole field of knowledge through the medium of living personality, in relating this body of knowledge to the primary aims of life, and in arousing active interest that leads to comprehension on the part of the student. Many students do not learn effectively through reading, and the lecture can introduce them to the subject matter. The lecturer can repeat material in different words when necessary, whereas books can provide only one wording of explaination. Complex materials, especially the most recent ones that are not yet incorporated into textbooks, can be set forth efficiently in lectures. Lectures can compensate for the overabundance of books in some fields and the lack of books in others. The lecturer can give a frame work, overview, and criticism unlike that found in any available printed material. The lecturer can provide aesthetic pleasure and communicate enthusiasm to a far greater degree that can the printed page, just as seeing and hearing a play have advantages over readingit. Lectures can be better prepared and more carefully planned than the extemporaneous remarks made to students in a discussion (the Hale Committe, cited in McLeish, 1976, p.258).
So it may be difficult to say anything new for or against the lecture method. One intriguing question is. Why has the lecture method persisted despite shortcomings that have been evident for centuries? The answer may be found in administrative factors rather than in learning and teaching factors. First, the lecture method is cheap because the number of students per teacher can be extremely large. Second, the lecture method is flexible since it can be readily adapted, on short notice, to a particular audience, subject matter, time limit, and set of equipment. The lecture method can also be adapted to the teacher’s schedule to a degree that printed and programmed teaching materials do not allow. Teachers cannot always plan ahead sufficiently to have materials run off on duplicating machine. Sometimes sheer in efficiency, of an all-too-human kind, prevents teachers from putting on paper and getting printed exactly the selection of ideas, from many sources and in a hitherto unprinted form, that they wish to present. No teaching method so adaptable will disappear in favor of methods that require more rigorous planning and usable only with certain kinds of proups, subject matter, time intervals, or equipment ( that is, projectors, books, audio or vidio record players, or computers).
Futher, the lecture method provides teacher and students with kind of reinforcement not available in other educational procedures. Teachers are rewarded by the attention they receive from students if they are lecturing at all effectively. So a professor of art wrote:
I enjoy the lecture method. It is the most dramatic way of presenting to the largest number of students a critical distillation of ideas and information on a subject in the shortest possible time. The bigger the class the better I perform intellectually. How else in teaching you can share with so many a lifetime of looking at and loving art? You stand on a stage in front of a screen on which the whole history of art is projected. You can be an explorer of African art, an interpreter of Greek sculptures, a spokesman for cathedral builders, an analyst of Picasso and philosopher of Sung painting. No other subject is as visually exciting in the classroom, and this is what keeps me turned on lecture after lecture, year after year. With that supporting cast and if he knew his line, who wouldn’t want to perform in front of a large audience? (Else, 1969, p. 21)
Finally, students may be reinforced by the warmth, humor, drama, intensity, logic, enthusiasm, and attention- to say nothing of knowledge and comprehension-that an effective lecturer bestows upon them. Students in the lecture hall may obtain a sense of security through being assured that their own attendance and attention are appropriate. That is, the lecture situation can tell students that they are doing the right thing at tyhe right time by being at a lecture, paying attention, perhaps taking notes, and responding with interest or boredom, in the same way that many other students are responding at the moment. The effectiveness of teaching methods is often measured by how much students learn in the form of knowledge and comprehension of a subject matter. But the lecture situation may also provide social reinforcement, aesthetic pleasure, and emotional reassurance of one’s own propriety- akind of coping with the essensial loneliness of the human condition. These may also be outcomes that account for the lecture method’s validity.
Empirical Evidence on the Effectiveness of Lectures
Despite all these possible advantages, the lecture method would probably have disappeared if experience and research had indicated that it is completely ineffective. But such evidence has not been forthcoming. Scores of experiments have been performed.
Comparisons of Lectures with other Methods in these experiments, students taught by the lecture method have been compared, on the basis of their achievement on final examination, with students taught by other methods, especially the discussion method. The overall verdict is that the lecture method is just about as effective, by and large, as the other methods. Dubin and Taveggia (1968) reviewed the data (rather than merely the conclusion) of nearly 100 studies over a 40-year period. They tallied the result of 88 independent comparasons of scores on final examination of students taught by the lecture and discussion methods, as reported in 36 experimental studies. Of these, 51 percent favored the lecture method, and 49 percent favored the discussion method. Dubin and Taveggia also examined the average scores on the final examination of students taught by these two methods. The differences averaged so close to zero as to be attributable to chance.
McKeachi and Kulik (1975) tried a different approach in examining these studies. They compared the lecture and discussion methods on thre
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Chapter 19Lecturing and ExplainingOverview Objectives of the lecture methodEmpirical Evidence on the effectiveness of LecturesComparasions of the Lectures method with other MethodsThought Processes in LecturesProper Uses of LecturesPreparation for LecturingThe Introduction to the LectureEstablishing Teacher-Students RelationshipsGaining Student AttentionMaking Reasonable Assumptions About Students’ Interests Providing Motivational Cues Exposing Essential ContentAdvance OrganizersPrestesting and Prompting Awareness of Relevant Knowledge or ExperienceRecap The Body of the LectureCovering the ContentProviding a Logical OrganizationComponent (Part-Whole) RelationshipsSequential RelationshipsMaterial to purpose (Relevance) RelationshipTransitional, or Connective, RelationshipsThe Comparasion Combination DevicesA Model for Organizing ExplainationsMaking the Organization ExplicitExplicitnessThe Rule-Example-Rule TechniqueExplaining LinksVerbal “Markers of Importance”The Stuctural SupportMaintaining AttentionVarying the stimuliChanging Communication ChannelsPhysical ActivityUsing HumorShowing EnthusiasmQuestion Inserted into LecturesNote-takingHandouts Being ClearExamplesAvoiding Vagueness TermsThe Conclusion of the LectureFunction of the ConclusionInterlecture StructuringCaution About the Lecture MethodSummaryOverview A great deal of teaching still takes the form of solo performance. When Lecturing, explaining, pointing out relationships, giving examples, or correcting errors, teachers often launch into monologue. From one student to a few hundred may be present to see and hear you for anywhere from 30 seconds to 60 minutes. Are you emotionally ready for this kind of attention from your students? Are you prepare to instruct them as well as posible? Do you know how to establish rapport with them? Can you motivate them to pay attention to what you are saying? Can you organise your thoughts coherently, and should you share that organization with your students? Are you able to conclude your solo performance so that more learning and higher student satisfaction will occur? This chapter on lecturing and explaining should help you in dealing with these problems. You will now learn about both lectures (the relatively long, uninterupted, formal discourses frequently used by the college or university teacher) and explainations (the shorter discourses, lasting, say, 30 seconds to 5 minutes, heard frequently in smaller classes or those below the college level). We deal in turn with the objectives of the lecture method, the lecturer’s preparation, and the ways in which he or she should give the introduction, body, and conclusion of the lecture.
OBJECTIVES OF THE LECTURE METHOD
Samuel Johnson, the great English literary figure, was quoted in 1799 by his biographer James Boswell as saying “ Lectures were once useful; but now when all can read, and books are so numerous, lecturers are unnecessary. If your attention fails, and you miss a part of lecture, it is lost; you can not go back as you do upon the book” (Boswell, 1799; 1953). The point has often been made.
McLeish (1976) reviewed criticsms over several centuries. Lectures have been critized as being anachronisms since the invention of printing, as permitting the passivity of listeners, and as limiting the student to note taking, instead of bringing students into more active contact with their curricula. It is nnot unusual to read such items as a student’s editorial about “our absurd lecture system” (Stanford Daily, April 19, 1963, p.2) or “twenty five Harvard medical students say their lectures are dull and a waste of time” (Associated Press, January 31, 1966),or a lament that “only a very small number of students ever spoke or raised questions” (Stanford Daily, January 7, 1981, p.4).
But lecturing has also been defended as valuable in surveying a whole field of knowledge through the medium of living personality, in relating this body of knowledge to the primary aims of life, and in arousing active interest that leads to comprehension on the part of the student. Many students do not learn effectively through reading, and the lecture can introduce them to the subject matter. The lecturer can repeat material in different words when necessary, whereas books can provide only one wording of explaination. Complex materials, especially the most recent ones that are not yet incorporated into textbooks, can be set forth efficiently in lectures. Lectures can compensate for the overabundance of books in some fields and the lack of books in others. The lecturer can give a frame work, overview, and criticism unlike that found in any available printed material. The lecturer can provide aesthetic pleasure and communicate enthusiasm to a far greater degree that can the printed page, just as seeing and hearing a play have advantages over readingit. Lectures can be better prepared and more carefully planned than the extemporaneous remarks made to students in a discussion (the Hale Committe, cited in McLeish, 1976, p.258).
So it may be difficult to say anything new for or against the lecture method. One intriguing question is. Why has the lecture method persisted despite shortcomings that have been evident for centuries? The answer may be found in administrative factors rather than in learning and teaching factors. First, the lecture method is cheap because the number of students per teacher can be extremely large. Second, the lecture method is flexible since it can be readily adapted, on short notice, to a particular audience, subject matter, time limit, and set of equipment. The lecture method can also be adapted to the teacher’s schedule to a degree that printed and programmed teaching materials do not allow. Teachers cannot always plan ahead sufficiently to have materials run off on duplicating machine. Sometimes sheer in efficiency, of an all-too-human kind, prevents teachers from putting on paper and getting printed exactly the selection of ideas, from many sources and in a hitherto unprinted form, that they wish to present. No teaching method so adaptable will disappear in favor of methods that require more rigorous planning and usable only with certain kinds of proups, subject matter, time intervals, or equipment ( that is, projectors, books, audio or vidio record players, or computers).
Futher, the lecture method provides teacher and students with kind of reinforcement not available in other educational procedures. Teachers are rewarded by the attention they receive from students if they are lecturing at all effectively. So a professor of art wrote:
I enjoy the lecture method. It is the most dramatic way of presenting to the largest number of students a critical distillation of ideas and information on a subject in the shortest possible time. The bigger the class the better I perform intellectually. How else in teaching you can share with so many a lifetime of looking at and loving art? You stand on a stage in front of a screen on which the whole history of art is projected. You can be an explorer of African art, an interpreter of Greek sculptures, a spokesman for cathedral builders, an analyst of Picasso and philosopher of Sung painting. No other subject is as visually exciting in the classroom, and this is what keeps me turned on lecture after lecture, year after year. With that supporting cast and if he knew his line, who wouldn’t want to perform in front of a large audience? (Else, 1969, p. 21)
Finally, students may be reinforced by the warmth, humor, drama, intensity, logic, enthusiasm, and attention- to say nothing of knowledge and comprehension-that an effective lecturer bestows upon them. Students in the lecture hall may obtain a sense of security through being assured that their own attendance and attention are appropriate. That is, the lecture situation can tell students that they are doing the right thing at tyhe right time by being at a lecture, paying attention, perhaps taking notes, and responding with interest or boredom, in the same way that many other students are responding at the moment. The effectiveness of teaching methods is often measured by how much students learn in the form of knowledge and comprehension of a subject matter. But the lecture situation may also provide social reinforcement, aesthetic pleasure, and emotional reassurance of one’s own propriety- akind of coping with the essensial loneliness of the human condition. These may also be outcomes that account for the lecture method’s validity.
Empirical Evidence on the Effectiveness of Lectures
Despite all these possible advantages, the lecture method would probably have disappeared if experience and research had indicated that it is completely ineffective. But such evidence has not been forthcoming. Scores of experiments have been performed.
Comparisons of Lectures with other Methods in these experiments, students taught by the lecture method have been compared, on the basis of their achievement on final examination, with students taught by other methods, especially the discussion method. The overall verdict is that the lecture method is just about as effective, by and large, as the other methods. Dubin and Taveggia (1968) reviewed the data (rather than merely the conclusion) of nearly 100 studies over a 40-year period. They tallied the result of 88 independent comparasons of scores on final examination of students taught by the lecture and discussion methods, as reported in 36 experimental studies. Of these, 51 percent favored the lecture method, and 49 percent favored the discussion method. Dubin and Taveggia also examined the average scores on the final examination of students taught by these two methods. The differences averaged so close to zero as to be attributable to chance.
McKeachi and Kulik (1975) tried a different approach in examining these studies. They compared the lecture and discussion methods on thre
OBJECTIVES OF THE LECTURE METHOD
Samuel Johnson, the great English literary figure, was quoted in 1799 by his biographer James Boswell as saying “ Lectures were once useful; but now when all can read, and books are so numerous, lecturers are unnecessary. If your attention fails, and you miss a part of lecture, it is lost; you can not go back as you do upon the book” (Boswell, 1799; 1953). The point has often been made.
McLeish (1976) reviewed criticsms over several centuries. Lectures have been critized as being anachronisms since the invention of printing, as permitting the passivity of listeners, and as limiting the student to note taking, instead of bringing students into more active contact with their curricula. It is nnot unusual to read such items as a student’s editorial about “our absurd lecture system” (Stanford Daily, April 19, 1963, p.2) or “twenty five Harvard medical students say their lectures are dull and a waste of time” (Associated Press, January 31, 1966),or a lament that “only a very small number of students ever spoke or raised questions” (Stanford Daily, January 7, 1981, p.4).
But lecturing has also been defended as valuable in surveying a whole field of knowledge through the medium of living personality, in relating this body of knowledge to the primary aims of life, and in arousing active interest that leads to comprehension on the part of the student. Many students do not learn effectively through reading, and the lecture can introduce them to the subject matter. The lecturer can repeat material in different words when necessary, whereas books can provide only one wording of explaination. Complex materials, especially the most recent ones that are not yet incorporated into textbooks, can be set forth efficiently in lectures. Lectures can compensate for the overabundance of books in some fields and the lack of books in others. The lecturer can give a frame work, overview, and criticism unlike that found in any available printed material. The lecturer can provide aesthetic pleasure and communicate enthusiasm to a far greater degree that can the printed page, just as seeing and hearing a play have advantages over readingit. Lectures can be better prepared and more carefully planned than the extemporaneous remarks made to students in a discussion (the Hale Committe, cited in McLeish, 1976, p.258).
So it may be difficult to say anything new for or against the lecture method. One intriguing question is. Why has the lecture method persisted despite shortcomings that have been evident for centuries? The answer may be found in administrative factors rather than in learning and teaching factors. First, the lecture method is cheap because the number of students per teacher can be extremely large. Second, the lecture method is flexible since it can be readily adapted, on short notice, to a particular audience, subject matter, time limit, and set of equipment. The lecture method can also be adapted to the teacher’s schedule to a degree that printed and programmed teaching materials do not allow. Teachers cannot always plan ahead sufficiently to have materials run off on duplicating machine. Sometimes sheer in efficiency, of an all-too-human kind, prevents teachers from putting on paper and getting printed exactly the selection of ideas, from many sources and in a hitherto unprinted form, that they wish to present. No teaching method so adaptable will disappear in favor of methods that require more rigorous planning and usable only with certain kinds of proups, subject matter, time intervals, or equipment ( that is, projectors, books, audio or vidio record players, or computers).
Futher, the lecture method provides teacher and students with kind of reinforcement not available in other educational procedures. Teachers are rewarded by the attention they receive from students if they are lecturing at all effectively. So a professor of art wrote:
I enjoy the lecture method. It is the most dramatic way of presenting to the largest number of students a critical distillation of ideas and information on a subject in the shortest possible time. The bigger the class the better I perform intellectually. How else in teaching you can share with so many a lifetime of looking at and loving art? You stand on a stage in front of a screen on which the whole history of art is projected. You can be an explorer of African art, an interpreter of Greek sculptures, a spokesman for cathedral builders, an analyst of Picasso and philosopher of Sung painting. No other subject is as visually exciting in the classroom, and this is what keeps me turned on lecture after lecture, year after year. With that supporting cast and if he knew his line, who wouldn’t want to perform in front of a large audience? (Else, 1969, p. 21)
Finally, students may be reinforced by the warmth, humor, drama, intensity, logic, enthusiasm, and attention- to say nothing of knowledge and comprehension-that an effective lecturer bestows upon them. Students in the lecture hall may obtain a sense of security through being assured that their own attendance and attention are appropriate. That is, the lecture situation can tell students that they are doing the right thing at tyhe right time by being at a lecture, paying attention, perhaps taking notes, and responding with interest or boredom, in the same way that many other students are responding at the moment. The effectiveness of teaching methods is often measured by how much students learn in the form of knowledge and comprehension of a subject matter. But the lecture situation may also provide social reinforcement, aesthetic pleasure, and emotional reassurance of one’s own propriety- akind of coping with the essensial loneliness of the human condition. These may also be outcomes that account for the lecture method’s validity.
Empirical Evidence on the Effectiveness of Lectures
Despite all these possible advantages, the lecture method would probably have disappeared if experience and research had indicated that it is completely ineffective. But such evidence has not been forthcoming. Scores of experiments have been performed.
Comparisons of Lectures with other Methods in these experiments, students taught by the lecture method have been compared, on the basis of their achievement on final examination, with students taught by other methods, especially the discussion method. The overall verdict is that the lecture method is just about as effective, by and large, as the other methods. Dubin and Taveggia (1968) reviewed the data (rather than merely the conclusion) of nearly 100 studies over a 40-year period. They tallied the result of 88 independent comparasons of scores on final examination of students taught by the lecture and discussion methods, as reported in 36 experimental studies. Of these, 51 percent favored the lecture method, and 49 percent favored the discussion method. Dubin and Taveggia also examined the average scores on the final examination of students taught by these two methods. The differences averaged so close to zero as to be attributable to chance.
McKeachi and Kulik (1975) tried a different approach in examining these studies. They compared the lecture and discussion methods on thre
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Bab 19
Kuliah dan Menjelaskan
Ikhtisar
Tujuan dari metode ceramah
empiris Bukti pada efektivitas Kuliah
Comparasions dari metode Kuliah dengan Metode lainnya
Proses Pemikiran di Kuliah
Penggunaan Proper Kuliah
Persiapan Mengajar
Pendahuluan ke Kuliah
Membangun Hubungan Guru-Siswa
Mendapatkan Mahasiswa Perhatian
Membuat Asumsi yang wajar Tentang Minat Siswa
Memberikan Isyarat Motivational
Mengekspos Konten Esensial
Muka Penyelenggara
Prestesting dan Mendorong Kesadaran Pengetahuan relevan atau Pengalaman
Rekap
Tubuh Kuliah
Menutupi Konten
Menyediakan Logical Organisasi
Komponen (Part-Whole) Hubungan
Sequential Hubungan
Bahan untuk tujuan ( relevansi) Hubungan
Transisi, atau ikat, Hubungan
The comparasion
Kombinasi Perangkat
A Model Pengorganisasian explainations
Membuat Organisasi Explicit
ketegasan
The Rule-Contoh-Peraturan Teknik
Menjelaskan Link
Verbal "Penanda Pentingnya"
The stuktural Dukungan
Menjaga Perhatian
Memvariasikan rangsangan
Mengubah Saluran Komunikasi
Fisik Kegiatan
Menggunakan Humor
Menampilkan Antusiasme
Pertanyaan Dimasukkan ke dalam Kuliah
Catatan-mengambil
Handout
Menjadi Batal
Contoh
Menghindari Ketidakjelasan Syarat
Kesimpulan dari Kuliah
Fungsi Kesimpulan
Interlecture Penataan
Perhatian Tentang Metode Kuliah
Ringkasan Ikhtisar Banyak pengajaran masih mengambil bentuk kinerja solo. Ketika Mengajar, menjelaskan, menunjukkan hubungan, memberikan contoh, atau mengoreksi kesalahan, guru sering meluncurkan ke monolog. Dari satu siswa ke beberapa ratus dapat hadir untuk melihat dan mendengar Anda untuk manapun dari 30 detik sampai 60 menit. Apakah Anda secara emosional siap untuk jenis perhatian dari siswa Anda? Apakah Anda mempersiapkan diri untuk mengajar mereka serta posible? Apakah Anda tahu bagaimana membangun hubungan dengan mereka? Anda dapat memotivasi mereka untuk memperhatikan apa yang Anda katakan? Anda dapat mengatur pikiran Anda koheren, dan harus Anda berbagi organisasi dengan siswa Anda? Apakah Anda dapat menyimpulkan kinerja solo Anda sehingga lebih belajar dan kepuasan siswa yang lebih tinggi akan terjadi? Bab ini pada kuliah dan menjelaskan akan membantu Anda dalam menghadapi masalah ini. Sekarang Anda akan belajar tentang kedua kuliah (yang relatif lama, uninterupted, wacana formal yang sering digunakan oleh guru perguruan tinggi atau universitas) dan explainations (wacana pendek, abadi, mengatakan , 30 detik sampai 5 menit, sering terdengar di kelas yang lebih kecil atau mereka di bawah tingkat perguruan tinggi). Kita berurusan pada gilirannya dengan tujuan dari metode ceramah, persiapan dosen, dan cara-cara di mana ia harus memberikan pengenalan, tubuh, dan kesimpulan dari kuliah. TUJUAN METODE CERAMAH Samuel Johnson, Inggris tokoh sastra besar , dikutip pada tahun 1799 oleh penulis biografinya James Boswell mengatakan "Ceramah dulunya berguna; tapi sekarang ketika semua bisa membaca, dan buku begitu banyak, dosen tidak diperlukan. Jika perhatian Anda gagal, dan Anda kehilangan bagian dari kuliah, itu hilang; Anda tidak bisa kembali seperti yang Anda lakukan pada buku "(Boswell, 1799; 1953). Intinya sering dibuat. McLeish (1976) Ulasan criticsms selama beberapa abad. Kuliah telah dikritisi sebagai anakronisme sejak penemuan percetakan, seperti memungkinkan kepasifan pendengar, dan sebagai membatasi siswa untuk dicatat mengambil, alih-alih membawa siswa ke dalam kontak lebih aktif dengan kurikulum mereka. Hal ini nnot biasa untuk membaca barang-barang seperti editorial siswa tentang "sistem kuliah masuk akal kami" (Stanford Harian, 19 April 1963, p.2) atau "Dua Puluh Lima mahasiswa kedokteran Harvard mengatakan kuliah mereka membosankan dan membuang-buang waktu" (Associated Press, 31 Januari 1966), atau ratapan yang "hanya jumlah yang sangat kecil dari siswa yang pernah berbicara atau timbul pertanyaan" (Stanford Harian, 7 Januari, 1981, hal.4). Tapi kuliah juga telah membela berharga dalam survei seluruh bidang pengetahuan melalui media hidup kepribadian, dalam berhubungan ini tubuh pengetahuan dengan tujuan utama kehidupan, dan dalam membangkitkan minat aktif yang mengarah ke pemahaman pada bagian dari siswa. Banyak siswa tidak belajar secara efektif melalui membaca, dan kuliah bisa memperkenalkan mereka dengan materi pelajaran. Dosen dapat mengulang materi dalam kata-kata yang berbeda bila diperlukan, sedangkan buku dapat memberikan hanya satu kata-kata dari penjelasan. Bahan kompleks, terutama yang terbaru yang belum dimasukkan ke dalam buku-buku teks, dapat diatur secara efisien dalam kuliah. Kuliah dapat mengkompensasi hal meluap-luap buku di beberapa bidang dan kurangnya buku pada orang lain. Dosen dapat memberikan kerangka kerja, gambaran, dan kritik seperti yang ditemukan dalam bahan cetak apapun yang tersedia. Dosen dapat memberikan kesenangan estetika dan berkomunikasi antusiasme untuk tingkat yang jauh lebih besar yang dapat halaman cetak, seperti melihat dan mendengar bermain memiliki keunggulan dibandingkan readingit. Kuliah bisa lebih siap dan lebih hati-hati direncanakan dari pernyataan tanpa persiapan dibuat untuk siswa dalam diskusi (Hale Komite, dikutip dalam McLeish, 1976, p.258). Jadi mungkin sulit untuk mengatakan sesuatu yang baru atau menentang metode ceramah . Satu pertanyaan menarik adalah. Mengapa metode ceramah bertahan meskipun kekurangan yang telah terbukti selama berabad-abad? Jawabannya dapat ditemukan dalam faktor administratif daripada dalam belajar dan mengajar faktor. Pertama, metode ceramah adalah murah karena jumlah siswa per guru bisa sangat besar. Kedua, metode ceramah adalah fleksibel karena dapat mudah disesuaikan, dalam waktu singkat, kepada khalayak tertentu, materi pelajaran, batas waktu, dan mengatur peralatan. Metode ceramah juga dapat disesuaikan dengan jadwal guru untuk sebuah gelar yang dicetak dan bahan ajar diprogram tidak memungkinkan. Guru tidak bisa selalu merencanakan ke depan cukup untuk memiliki bahan lari dari duplikasi mesin. Kadang-kadang semata efisiensi, dari jenis yang terlalu manusia, mencegah guru dari memakai kertas dan mendapatkan dicetak persis pemilihan ide, dari berbagai sumber dan dalam bentuk yang sampai sekarang belum dicetak, bahwa mereka ingin hadir. Tidak ada metode mengajar sehingga beradaptasi akan hilang dalam mendukung metode yang memerlukan perencanaan yang lebih ketat dan dapat digunakan hanya dengan jenis tertentu proups, materi pelajaran, interval waktu, atau peralatan (yaitu, pemain proyektor, buku, audio atau rekaman vidio, atau komputer) . Lebih, metode ceramah menyediakan guru dan siswa dengan jenis penguatan tidak tersedia dalam prosedur pendidikan lainnya. Guru dihargai oleh perhatian yang mereka terima dari siswa jika mereka mengajar di semua efektif. Jadi seorang profesor seni menulis: Saya menikmati metode ceramah. Ini adalah cara yang paling dramatis menghadirkan untuk jumlah terbesar dari siswa distilasi kritis ide dan informasi pada subjek dalam waktu sesingkat mungkin. Semakin besar kelas yang lebih baik saya melakukan intelektual. Bagaimana lagi dalam mengajar Anda dapat berbagi dengan begitu banyak seumur hidup melihat dan seni mencintai? Anda berdiri di atas panggung di depan layar yang seluruh sejarah seni diproyeksikan. Anda bisa menjadi seorang penjelajah seni Afrika, juru patung Yunani, juru bicara pembangun katedral, seorang analis dari Picasso dan filsuf dari Sung lukisan. Tidak ada subjek lain adalah sebagai visual menarik di kelas, dan ini adalah apa yang membuat saya diaktifkan kuliah setelah kuliah, tahun demi tahun. Dengan peran pendukung dan jika dia tahu line, yang tidak ingin tampil di depan audiens yang besar? (Lain, 1969, hlm. 21) Akhirnya, siswa dapat diperkuat oleh kehangatan, humor, drama, intensitas, logika, antusiasme, dan perhatian-untuk tidak mengatakan pengetahuan dan pemahaman-bahwa dosen yang efektif melimpahkan kepada mereka. Siswa di ruang kuliah dapat memperoleh rasa aman melalui menjadi yakin bahwa kehadiran dan perhatian mereka sendiri sesuai. Artinya, situasi kuliah dapat memberitahu siswa bahwa mereka melakukan hal yang benar di tyhe waktu yang tepat dengan menjadi di kuliah, membayar perhatian, mungkin mengambil catatan, dan menanggapi dengan minat atau kebosanan, dengan cara yang sama bahwa banyak siswa lain menanggapi saat ini. Efektivitas metode mengajar sering diukur dengan berapa banyak siswa belajar dalam bentuk pengetahuan dan pemahaman dari materi pelajaran. Tapi situasi kuliah juga dapat memberikan penguatan sosial, kesenangan estetika, dan jaminan emosional dari jenis yang propriety- sendiri mengatasi kesepian essensial dari kondisi manusia. Ini juga mungkin hasil yang menjelaskan validitas metode ceramah ini. Bukti Empiris pada Efektivitas Kuliah Meskipun semua kemungkinan keuntungan ini, metode ceramah mungkin akan menghilang jika pengalaman dan penelitian telah menunjukkan bahwa itu adalah benar-benar tidak efektif. Tapi bukti-bukti tersebut belum datang. Skor dari percobaan telah dilakukan. Perbandingan Kuliah dengan Metode lain dalam percobaan ini, siswa diajarkan dengan metode ceramah telah dibandingkan, atas dasar prestasi mereka pada ujian akhir, dengan siswa yang diajarkan dengan metode lain, terutama metode diskusi. Keseluruhan putusan adalah bahwa metode ceramah hanya tentang efektif, oleh dan besar, seperti metode lainnya. Dubin dan Taveggia (1968) mengkaji data (bukan hanya kesimpulan) dari hampir 100 studi selama 40 tahun. Mereka dihitung hasil 88 comparasons independen skor pada ujian akhir siswa diajarkan oleh metode ceramah dan diskusi, seperti yang dilaporkan dalam 36 studi eksperimental. Dari jumlah tersebut, 51 persen disukai metode ceramah, dan 49 persen disukai metode diskusi. Dubin dan Taveggia juga memeriksa skor rata-rata pada ujian akhir siswa diajarkan oleh kedua metode ini. Perbedaan rata-rata begitu dekat dengan nol untuk menjadi disebabkan kesempatan. McKeachi dan Kulik (1975) mencoba pendekatan yang berbeda dalam memeriksa studi ini. Mereka membandingkan ceramah dan diskusi metode pada thre
Kuliah dan Menjelaskan
Ikhtisar
Tujuan dari metode ceramah
empiris Bukti pada efektivitas Kuliah
Comparasions dari metode Kuliah dengan Metode lainnya
Proses Pemikiran di Kuliah
Penggunaan Proper Kuliah
Persiapan Mengajar
Pendahuluan ke Kuliah
Membangun Hubungan Guru-Siswa
Mendapatkan Mahasiswa Perhatian
Membuat Asumsi yang wajar Tentang Minat Siswa
Memberikan Isyarat Motivational
Mengekspos Konten Esensial
Muka Penyelenggara
Prestesting dan Mendorong Kesadaran Pengetahuan relevan atau Pengalaman
Rekap
Tubuh Kuliah
Menutupi Konten
Menyediakan Logical Organisasi
Komponen (Part-Whole) Hubungan
Sequential Hubungan
Bahan untuk tujuan ( relevansi) Hubungan
Transisi, atau ikat, Hubungan
The comparasion
Kombinasi Perangkat
A Model Pengorganisasian explainations
Membuat Organisasi Explicit
ketegasan
The Rule-Contoh-Peraturan Teknik
Menjelaskan Link
Verbal "Penanda Pentingnya"
The stuktural Dukungan
Menjaga Perhatian
Memvariasikan rangsangan
Mengubah Saluran Komunikasi
Fisik Kegiatan
Menggunakan Humor
Menampilkan Antusiasme
Pertanyaan Dimasukkan ke dalam Kuliah
Catatan-mengambil
Handout
Menjadi Batal
Contoh
Menghindari Ketidakjelasan Syarat
Kesimpulan dari Kuliah
Fungsi Kesimpulan
Interlecture Penataan
Perhatian Tentang Metode Kuliah
Ringkasan Ikhtisar Banyak pengajaran masih mengambil bentuk kinerja solo. Ketika Mengajar, menjelaskan, menunjukkan hubungan, memberikan contoh, atau mengoreksi kesalahan, guru sering meluncurkan ke monolog. Dari satu siswa ke beberapa ratus dapat hadir untuk melihat dan mendengar Anda untuk manapun dari 30 detik sampai 60 menit. Apakah Anda secara emosional siap untuk jenis perhatian dari siswa Anda? Apakah Anda mempersiapkan diri untuk mengajar mereka serta posible? Apakah Anda tahu bagaimana membangun hubungan dengan mereka? Anda dapat memotivasi mereka untuk memperhatikan apa yang Anda katakan? Anda dapat mengatur pikiran Anda koheren, dan harus Anda berbagi organisasi dengan siswa Anda? Apakah Anda dapat menyimpulkan kinerja solo Anda sehingga lebih belajar dan kepuasan siswa yang lebih tinggi akan terjadi? Bab ini pada kuliah dan menjelaskan akan membantu Anda dalam menghadapi masalah ini. Sekarang Anda akan belajar tentang kedua kuliah (yang relatif lama, uninterupted, wacana formal yang sering digunakan oleh guru perguruan tinggi atau universitas) dan explainations (wacana pendek, abadi, mengatakan , 30 detik sampai 5 menit, sering terdengar di kelas yang lebih kecil atau mereka di bawah tingkat perguruan tinggi). Kita berurusan pada gilirannya dengan tujuan dari metode ceramah, persiapan dosen, dan cara-cara di mana ia harus memberikan pengenalan, tubuh, dan kesimpulan dari kuliah. TUJUAN METODE CERAMAH Samuel Johnson, Inggris tokoh sastra besar , dikutip pada tahun 1799 oleh penulis biografinya James Boswell mengatakan "Ceramah dulunya berguna; tapi sekarang ketika semua bisa membaca, dan buku begitu banyak, dosen tidak diperlukan. Jika perhatian Anda gagal, dan Anda kehilangan bagian dari kuliah, itu hilang; Anda tidak bisa kembali seperti yang Anda lakukan pada buku "(Boswell, 1799; 1953). Intinya sering dibuat. McLeish (1976) Ulasan criticsms selama beberapa abad. Kuliah telah dikritisi sebagai anakronisme sejak penemuan percetakan, seperti memungkinkan kepasifan pendengar, dan sebagai membatasi siswa untuk dicatat mengambil, alih-alih membawa siswa ke dalam kontak lebih aktif dengan kurikulum mereka. Hal ini nnot biasa untuk membaca barang-barang seperti editorial siswa tentang "sistem kuliah masuk akal kami" (Stanford Harian, 19 April 1963, p.2) atau "Dua Puluh Lima mahasiswa kedokteran Harvard mengatakan kuliah mereka membosankan dan membuang-buang waktu" (Associated Press, 31 Januari 1966), atau ratapan yang "hanya jumlah yang sangat kecil dari siswa yang pernah berbicara atau timbul pertanyaan" (Stanford Harian, 7 Januari, 1981, hal.4). Tapi kuliah juga telah membela berharga dalam survei seluruh bidang pengetahuan melalui media hidup kepribadian, dalam berhubungan ini tubuh pengetahuan dengan tujuan utama kehidupan, dan dalam membangkitkan minat aktif yang mengarah ke pemahaman pada bagian dari siswa. Banyak siswa tidak belajar secara efektif melalui membaca, dan kuliah bisa memperkenalkan mereka dengan materi pelajaran. Dosen dapat mengulang materi dalam kata-kata yang berbeda bila diperlukan, sedangkan buku dapat memberikan hanya satu kata-kata dari penjelasan. Bahan kompleks, terutama yang terbaru yang belum dimasukkan ke dalam buku-buku teks, dapat diatur secara efisien dalam kuliah. Kuliah dapat mengkompensasi hal meluap-luap buku di beberapa bidang dan kurangnya buku pada orang lain. Dosen dapat memberikan kerangka kerja, gambaran, dan kritik seperti yang ditemukan dalam bahan cetak apapun yang tersedia. Dosen dapat memberikan kesenangan estetika dan berkomunikasi antusiasme untuk tingkat yang jauh lebih besar yang dapat halaman cetak, seperti melihat dan mendengar bermain memiliki keunggulan dibandingkan readingit. Kuliah bisa lebih siap dan lebih hati-hati direncanakan dari pernyataan tanpa persiapan dibuat untuk siswa dalam diskusi (Hale Komite, dikutip dalam McLeish, 1976, p.258). Jadi mungkin sulit untuk mengatakan sesuatu yang baru atau menentang metode ceramah . Satu pertanyaan menarik adalah. Mengapa metode ceramah bertahan meskipun kekurangan yang telah terbukti selama berabad-abad? Jawabannya dapat ditemukan dalam faktor administratif daripada dalam belajar dan mengajar faktor. Pertama, metode ceramah adalah murah karena jumlah siswa per guru bisa sangat besar. Kedua, metode ceramah adalah fleksibel karena dapat mudah disesuaikan, dalam waktu singkat, kepada khalayak tertentu, materi pelajaran, batas waktu, dan mengatur peralatan. Metode ceramah juga dapat disesuaikan dengan jadwal guru untuk sebuah gelar yang dicetak dan bahan ajar diprogram tidak memungkinkan. Guru tidak bisa selalu merencanakan ke depan cukup untuk memiliki bahan lari dari duplikasi mesin. Kadang-kadang semata efisiensi, dari jenis yang terlalu manusia, mencegah guru dari memakai kertas dan mendapatkan dicetak persis pemilihan ide, dari berbagai sumber dan dalam bentuk yang sampai sekarang belum dicetak, bahwa mereka ingin hadir. Tidak ada metode mengajar sehingga beradaptasi akan hilang dalam mendukung metode yang memerlukan perencanaan yang lebih ketat dan dapat digunakan hanya dengan jenis tertentu proups, materi pelajaran, interval waktu, atau peralatan (yaitu, pemain proyektor, buku, audio atau rekaman vidio, atau komputer) . Lebih, metode ceramah menyediakan guru dan siswa dengan jenis penguatan tidak tersedia dalam prosedur pendidikan lainnya. Guru dihargai oleh perhatian yang mereka terima dari siswa jika mereka mengajar di semua efektif. Jadi seorang profesor seni menulis: Saya menikmati metode ceramah. Ini adalah cara yang paling dramatis menghadirkan untuk jumlah terbesar dari siswa distilasi kritis ide dan informasi pada subjek dalam waktu sesingkat mungkin. Semakin besar kelas yang lebih baik saya melakukan intelektual. Bagaimana lagi dalam mengajar Anda dapat berbagi dengan begitu banyak seumur hidup melihat dan seni mencintai? Anda berdiri di atas panggung di depan layar yang seluruh sejarah seni diproyeksikan. Anda bisa menjadi seorang penjelajah seni Afrika, juru patung Yunani, juru bicara pembangun katedral, seorang analis dari Picasso dan filsuf dari Sung lukisan. Tidak ada subjek lain adalah sebagai visual menarik di kelas, dan ini adalah apa yang membuat saya diaktifkan kuliah setelah kuliah, tahun demi tahun. Dengan peran pendukung dan jika dia tahu line, yang tidak ingin tampil di depan audiens yang besar? (Lain, 1969, hlm. 21) Akhirnya, siswa dapat diperkuat oleh kehangatan, humor, drama, intensitas, logika, antusiasme, dan perhatian-untuk tidak mengatakan pengetahuan dan pemahaman-bahwa dosen yang efektif melimpahkan kepada mereka. Siswa di ruang kuliah dapat memperoleh rasa aman melalui menjadi yakin bahwa kehadiran dan perhatian mereka sendiri sesuai. Artinya, situasi kuliah dapat memberitahu siswa bahwa mereka melakukan hal yang benar di tyhe waktu yang tepat dengan menjadi di kuliah, membayar perhatian, mungkin mengambil catatan, dan menanggapi dengan minat atau kebosanan, dengan cara yang sama bahwa banyak siswa lain menanggapi saat ini. Efektivitas metode mengajar sering diukur dengan berapa banyak siswa belajar dalam bentuk pengetahuan dan pemahaman dari materi pelajaran. Tapi situasi kuliah juga dapat memberikan penguatan sosial, kesenangan estetika, dan jaminan emosional dari jenis yang propriety- sendiri mengatasi kesepian essensial dari kondisi manusia. Ini juga mungkin hasil yang menjelaskan validitas metode ceramah ini. Bukti Empiris pada Efektivitas Kuliah Meskipun semua kemungkinan keuntungan ini, metode ceramah mungkin akan menghilang jika pengalaman dan penelitian telah menunjukkan bahwa itu adalah benar-benar tidak efektif. Tapi bukti-bukti tersebut belum datang. Skor dari percobaan telah dilakukan. Perbandingan Kuliah dengan Metode lain dalam percobaan ini, siswa diajarkan dengan metode ceramah telah dibandingkan, atas dasar prestasi mereka pada ujian akhir, dengan siswa yang diajarkan dengan metode lain, terutama metode diskusi. Keseluruhan putusan adalah bahwa metode ceramah hanya tentang efektif, oleh dan besar, seperti metode lainnya. Dubin dan Taveggia (1968) mengkaji data (bukan hanya kesimpulan) dari hampir 100 studi selama 40 tahun. Mereka dihitung hasil 88 comparasons independen skor pada ujian akhir siswa diajarkan oleh metode ceramah dan diskusi, seperti yang dilaporkan dalam 36 studi eksperimental. Dari jumlah tersebut, 51 persen disukai metode ceramah, dan 49 persen disukai metode diskusi. Dubin dan Taveggia juga memeriksa skor rata-rata pada ujian akhir siswa diajarkan oleh kedua metode ini. Perbedaan rata-rata begitu dekat dengan nol untuk menjadi disebabkan kesempatan. McKeachi dan Kulik (1975) mencoba pendekatan yang berbeda dalam memeriksa studi ini. Mereka membandingkan ceramah dan diskusi metode pada thre
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