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The conflict detection task represented a low-level perceptual task that was not very complex. The conflict resolution task provided controllers with the chance to generate their own solutions while taking safety and efficiency measures into consideration. The vectoring task provided controllers with a more dynamic environment in which aircraft sequencing could be done; finally, the airspace management task afforded controllers to vector aircraft, change altitudes, and shed subtasks, affordances that are not unlike the environment in which they currently operate. Hence, it appears that when placed in an increasingly complex environment, superior performance by older controllers may be due to greater reliance on experience that is most useful in a realistic environment and whose mitigating effects are most likely to be evident when the task supports use of that knowledge (Craik & Jennings, 1992; Kirlik, 1995). Our findings are congruent with the supposition of researchers (Abernathy & Hamm, 1995; Chase & Simon, 1973; Gilhooly, Wood, Kinnear, & Green, 1988; Vicente, 1992) who have proposed that experts will outperform novices when information is organized in terms of domain principles, as it was in the current study.
It is important to note that age and experience were confounded with one another in the controller group, which can usually make it difficult to isolate their additive and interactive effects. It is for this reason that participants with no air traffic experience were included in the study, effectively providing a “control” and enabling us to isolate the relative contributions of age and experience independent of one another. Indeed, here we observe that although age-related performance impairments were evident across both cognitive and ATC tasks among older participants, the substantially larger age effect observed for noncontrollers compared with controllers attests to the benefits of domain-specific experience. We also acknowledge that the use of a longitudinal design would have afforded us the opportunity to control for selective attrition effects. However, given the logistical constraints (e.g., extensive timelines for obtaining relevant data sets) associated with the conduct of such a study, this is not possible in most studies of Experience × Age interactions. Nevertheless, we do believe that the present results provide accurate information regarding the benefits of experience (this given that a subset of the results has been observed in previous empirical studies) and that these results are timely. However, we acknowledge that our findings should be supplemented by follow-on research efforts that employ longitudinal techniques as a means of providing converging evidence to support or refute the results presented here.
Another point that warrants discussion is the observation that younger noncontrollers performed as well as younger and older controllers on the ATC task battery. Although such an effect could call into question whether or not such tasks actually require ATC expertise, we note that the task battery was developed in close consultation with professional controllers and, more important, that the battery was sensitive enough to detect performance variations among controllers as a function of task complexity (with the most pronounced effects being observed as the tasks got more and more complex). Hence, we assert that the ecological validity of the battery is sound and that ATC expertise is required to achieve optimal performance, particularly on the most challenging tasks.
A more plausible reason for our finding could be that, given that the experience of interacting with the ATC simulation platform is analogous to playing an interactive video game, younger inexperienced adults are much better suited for such tasks compared with their older counterparts, considering their greater familiarity with playing video games on a day-to-day basis. Indeed, similar effects have been observed in previous empirical work (Gopher, Weil, & Siegel, 1989). This may well explain why younger noncontrollers were able to achieve performance levels equivalent to those of their experienced counterparts on a subset of tasks in the ATC battery. It may be the case that immersion into a full-scope ATC environment (that demands voice communication, physical coordination, and strip handling with other controllers) would better help illustrate the benefits of ATC-specific expertise when performing tasks administered in the ATC battery.
A related concern that we wish to address is that older noncontrollers may have been less computer literate that their experienced and inexperienced counterparts, an effect that may create uncertainty in interpreting the observed Age × Experience interactions. Although this is certainly plausible, we note that older noncontrollers had twice the amount of formal education as their experienced counterparts (3.46 compared with 1.08 years) and were working professionals. As a result, there is little reason to suspect that computer literacy may have been a factor, which affected complex task performance among older noncontrollers.
In sum, we may draw a number of conclusions from these results. First, from a theoretical standpoint, experience appears to moderate the effects of age-related decline on only a subset of the most relevant of cognitive abilities that underlie complex task performance. Second, the magnitude of experience benefits appears to be largely a result of the knowledge older workers use to mitigate the impact of age-related cognitive decrements as task complexity increases. Third, our results suggest that mandatory retirement policies introduced several decades ago to ensure safety across myriad complex professions should perhaps be reexamined. We note that in the ATC domain at least, the present set of data provides countries faced with controller shortages (e.g., United States, Russia, South Africa, and Australia) with one avenue for dealing with this issue and that our findings are congruent with recent field study analysis (Broach & Schroeder, 2006), which has revealed little evidence of age-related performance impairments between older and younger operators.
Given that the world’s population is ageing rapidly (Andreev & Vaupel, 2005; U.S. Census Bureau, 2004), the current results suggesting that older workers are capable of managing complex sociotechnical systems independent of chronological age (at least within the age ranges examined here) should provide a staffing solution (albeit temporary) in domains where skilled labor shortages are likely to be observed, such as ATC (Baguley, 2008;Becker & Milke, 1998). Moreover, there is also reason to be optimistic that the current evidence of older worker success in a domain as complex as ATC may be somewhat indicative of the potential older workers possess in successfully managing other complex sociotechnical systems (e.g., medical, construction, and electrical industry, where similar shortages are being faced). From a social perspective, however, harnessing the capital offered by these workers will depend on not only our ability to overcome traditional age-related stereotypes, but also on embracing the philosophy
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Konflik deteksi tugas mewakili tugas persepsi yang rendah yang tidak sangat kompleks. Tugas resolusi konflik disediakan controller dengan kesempatan untuk menghasilkan solusi mereka sendiri sambil mempertimbangkan keselamatan dan langkah-langkah efisiensi. Tugas vectoring disediakan controller dengan lingkungan yang lebih dinamis di mana pesawat Sekuensing dapat dilakukan; Akhirnya, udara manajemen tugas diberikan controller untuk vektor pesawat, mengubah ketinggian, dan subtugas gudang, affordances yang tidak berbeda dengan lingkungan di mana mereka beroperasi saat ini. Oleh karena itu, tampaknya bahwa ketika ditempatkan dalam lingkungan yang semakin kompleks, kinerja yang unggul oleh remaja pengendali mungkin karena lebih besar pengalaman yang paling berguna di lingkungan yang realistis dan efek mitigasi yang paling mungkin untuk menjadi jelas ketika tugas mendukung penggunaan pengetahuan (Craik & Jennings, 1992; Kirlik, 1995). Temuan kami sama dan sebangun dengan anggapan peneliti (Abernathy & Hamm, 1995; Chase & Simon, 1973; Gilhooly, kayu, Kinnear, & Green, 1988; Vicente, 1992) yang telah mengusulkan bahwa ahli akan mengungguli pemula ketika informasi yang terorganisir dalam hal prinsip-prinsip domain, seperti itu dalam penelitian ini.Hal ini penting untuk dicatat bahwa usia dan pengalaman bingung dengan satu sama lain atau bahkan dalam kelompok controller, yang biasanya dapat membuat sulit untuk mengisolasi efek mereka aditif dan interaktif. Ini adalah untuk alasan ini bahwa peserta dengan pengalaman lalu lintas udara tidak termasuk dalam studi, efektif memberikan "kontrol" dan memungkinkan kita untuk mengisolasi kontribusi relatif usia dan pengalaman independen satu sama lain. Memang, di sini kita mengamati bahwa meskipun usia-terkait kinerja gangguan yang jelas di kedua kognitif dan ATC tugas antara peserta lebih tua, efek umur secara substansial lebih besar yang diamati untuk noncontrollers dibandingkan dengan controller membuktikan manfaat dari pengalaman domain-spesifik. Kami juga mengakui bahwa menggunakan longitudinal desain akan diberikan kami peluang untuk kontrol gesekan selektif efek. Namun, mengingat keterbatasan logistik (misalnya, luas jadwal untuk mendapatkan set data yang relevan) terkait dengan pelaksanaan studi, hal ini tidak mungkin dalam kebanyakan studi pengalaman × umur interaksi. Namun demikian, kami percaya bahwa hasil hadir memberikan informasi yang akurat mengenai manfaat pengalaman (ini mengingat bahwa subset dari hasil telah diamati dalam studi empiris yang sebelumnya) dan bahwa hasil ini tepat waktu. Namun, kami mengakui bahwa temuan kami harus dilengkapi dengan upaya penelitian lanjutan mengenai yang menggunakan longitudinal teknik sebagai sarana untuk menyediakan konvergen bukti untuk mendukung atau menolak hasil yang disajikan di sini.Hal lain yang menjamin diskusi adalah pengamatan yang dilakukan noncontrollers lebih muda serta tua dan muda controller pada baterai tugas ATC. Meskipun efek seperti itu bisa menelepon ke pertanyaan apakah tugas-tugas seperti benar-benar membutuhkan keahlian ATC, kita perhatikan bahwa tugas baterai dikembangkan dalam konsultasi dengan controller profesional dan, lebih penting, bahwa baterai adalah cukup sensitif untuk mendeteksi perbedaan kinerja antara controller sebagai fungsi tugas kompleksitas (dengan efek paling menonjol yang sedang diamati sebagai tugas mendapat lebih banyak dan lebih kompleks). Oleh karena itu, kami menyatakan bahwa validitas ekologi baterai suara dan ATC keahlian diperlukan untuk mencapai kinerja yang optimal, terutama pada tugas-tugas yang paling menantang.Alasan yang lebih masuk akal untuk menemukan kami bisa, mengingat bahwa pengalaman berinteraksi dengan ATC simulasi platform analog dengan bermain video game interaktif, muda orang dewasa yang berpengalaman jauh lebih cocok untuk tugas-tugas seperti dibandingkan dengan rekan-rekan remaja mereka, mengingat mereka keakraban yang lebih besar dengan bermain video game pada dasar sehari-hari. Memang, efek yang sama telah diamati pada pekerjaan empiris sebelumnya (Gopher, Weil, & Siegel, 1989). Ini mungkin menjelaskan mengapa lebih muda noncontrollers mampu mencapai tingkat kinerja setara dengan rekan-rekan mereka berpengalaman pada subset dari tugas di ATC baterai. Mungkin terjadi bahwa pencelupan ke dalam lingkungan yang penuh-lingkup ATC (yang menuntut komunikasi suara, koordinasi fisik, dan strip menangani dengan pengendali lain) akan lebih baik membantu menggambarkan manfaat dari keahlian khusus ATC ketika melakukan tugas-tugas yang diberikan dalam baterai ATC.Keprihatinan terkait yang kita ingin alamat adalah bahwa noncontrollers yang lebih tua mungkin telah kurang melek komputer yang rekan-rekan mereka berpengalaman dan berpengalaman, efek yang dapat menciptakan ketidakpastian dalam menafsirkan umur × pengalaman interaksi yang diamati. Meskipun ini tentu saja masuk akal, kita perhatikan bahwa remaja noncontrollers telah dua kali jumlah pendidikan formal sebagai mitra berpengalaman (3.46 dibandingkan dengan 1,08 tahun) dan bekerja profesional. Akibatnya, ada sedikit alasan untuk mencurigai bahwa melek komputer mungkin telah menjadi faktor yang mempengaruhi kinerja tugas kompleks antara remaja noncontrollers.Singkatnya, kita dapat menarik beberapa kesimpulan dari hasil ini. Pertama, dari sudut pandang teoritis, pengalaman tampaknya moderat efek penurunan usia-terkait pada hanya sebuah subset dari yang paling relevan dari kemampuan kognitif yang mendasari kinerja tugas kompleks. Kedua, besarnya manfaat pengalaman tampaknya sebagian besar merupakan akibat pengetahuan pekerja yang lebih tua menggunakan untuk mengurangi dampak usaha kognitif yang berkaitan dengan usia sebagai tugas kompleksitas meningkat. Ketiga, hasil kami menunjukkan bahwa kebijakan pensiun memperkenalkan beberapa dekade yang lalu untuk memastikan keamanan di seluruh berbagai profesi kompleks harus mungkin Yoneya. Kita perhatikan bahwa dalam ATC domain setidaknya, sekarang set data menyediakan negara-negara yang dihadapkan dengan kekurangan controller (misalnya, Amerika Serikat, Rusia, Afrika Selatan, dan Australia) dengan satu jalan untuk berurusan dengan masalah ini dan temuan kami sama dan sebangun dengan kemarin bidang studi analisis (Broach & Schroeder, 2006), yang telah mengungkapkan sedikit bukti gangguan kinerja yang berkaitan dengan usia antara tua dan muda operator.Mengingat bahwa populasi dunia penuaan cepat (Andreev & Vaupel, 2005; Biro Sensus Amerika Serikat, 2004), hasil saat ini menunjukkan bahwa pekerja yang lebih tua mampu mengelola sistem kompleks sociotechnical independen dari usia kronologis (setidaknya dalam rentang usia diteliti) harus memberikan solusi kepegawaian (walaupun hanya sementara) di domain mana kekurangan tenaga terampil mungkin patut dipelihara, seperti ATC (Baguley, 2008;Becker & Milke, 1998). Selain itu, juga ada alasan untuk optimis bahwa bukti saat ini sukses pekerja anak di domain sebagai kompleks seperti ATC mungkin agak menunjukkan potensi pekerja yang lebih tua memiliki berhasil mengelola sistem kompleks sociotechnical lain (misalnya, medis, konstruksi, dan industri listrik, mana kekurangan serupa yang dihadapi). Dari perspektif sosial, namun, memanfaatkan ibukota yang ditawarkan oleh para pekerja ini akan tergantung pada bukan hanya kemampuan kita untuk mengatasi tradisional stereotip yang berkaitan dengan usia, tetapi juga merangkul filosofi
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The conflict detection task represented a low-level perceptual task that was not very complex. The conflict resolution task provided controllers with the chance to generate their own solutions while taking safety and efficiency measures into consideration. The vectoring task provided controllers with a more dynamic environment in which aircraft sequencing could be done; finally, the airspace management task afforded controllers to vector aircraft, change altitudes, and shed subtasks, affordances that are not unlike the environment in which they currently operate. Hence, it appears that when placed in an increasingly complex environment, superior performance by older controllers may be due to greater reliance on experience that is most useful in a realistic environment and whose mitigating effects are most likely to be evident when the task supports use of that knowledge (Craik & Jennings, 1992; Kirlik, 1995). Our findings are congruent with the supposition of researchers (Abernathy & Hamm, 1995; Chase & Simon, 1973; Gilhooly, Wood, Kinnear, & Green, 1988; Vicente, 1992) who have proposed that experts will outperform novices when information is organized in terms of domain principles, as it was in the current study.
It is important to note that age and experience were confounded with one another in the controller group, which can usually make it difficult to isolate their additive and interactive effects. It is for this reason that participants with no air traffic experience were included in the study, effectively providing a “control” and enabling us to isolate the relative contributions of age and experience independent of one another. Indeed, here we observe that although age-related performance impairments were evident across both cognitive and ATC tasks among older participants, the substantially larger age effect observed for noncontrollers compared with controllers attests to the benefits of domain-specific experience. We also acknowledge that the use of a longitudinal design would have afforded us the opportunity to control for selective attrition effects. However, given the logistical constraints (e.g., extensive timelines for obtaining relevant data sets) associated with the conduct of such a study, this is not possible in most studies of Experience × Age interactions. Nevertheless, we do believe that the present results provide accurate information regarding the benefits of experience (this given that a subset of the results has been observed in previous empirical studies) and that these results are timely. However, we acknowledge that our findings should be supplemented by follow-on research efforts that employ longitudinal techniques as a means of providing converging evidence to support or refute the results presented here.
Another point that warrants discussion is the observation that younger noncontrollers performed as well as younger and older controllers on the ATC task battery. Although such an effect could call into question whether or not such tasks actually require ATC expertise, we note that the task battery was developed in close consultation with professional controllers and, more important, that the battery was sensitive enough to detect performance variations among controllers as a function of task complexity (with the most pronounced effects being observed as the tasks got more and more complex). Hence, we assert that the ecological validity of the battery is sound and that ATC expertise is required to achieve optimal performance, particularly on the most challenging tasks.
A more plausible reason for our finding could be that, given that the experience of interacting with the ATC simulation platform is analogous to playing an interactive video game, younger inexperienced adults are much better suited for such tasks compared with their older counterparts, considering their greater familiarity with playing video games on a day-to-day basis. Indeed, similar effects have been observed in previous empirical work (Gopher, Weil, & Siegel, 1989). This may well explain why younger noncontrollers were able to achieve performance levels equivalent to those of their experienced counterparts on a subset of tasks in the ATC battery. It may be the case that immersion into a full-scope ATC environment (that demands voice communication, physical coordination, and strip handling with other controllers) would better help illustrate the benefits of ATC-specific expertise when performing tasks administered in the ATC battery.
A related concern that we wish to address is that older noncontrollers may have been less computer literate that their experienced and inexperienced counterparts, an effect that may create uncertainty in interpreting the observed Age × Experience interactions. Although this is certainly plausible, we note that older noncontrollers had twice the amount of formal education as their experienced counterparts (3.46 compared with 1.08 years) and were working professionals. As a result, there is little reason to suspect that computer literacy may have been a factor, which affected complex task performance among older noncontrollers.
In sum, we may draw a number of conclusions from these results. First, from a theoretical standpoint, experience appears to moderate the effects of age-related decline on only a subset of the most relevant of cognitive abilities that underlie complex task performance. Second, the magnitude of experience benefits appears to be largely a result of the knowledge older workers use to mitigate the impact of age-related cognitive decrements as task complexity increases. Third, our results suggest that mandatory retirement policies introduced several decades ago to ensure safety across myriad complex professions should perhaps be reexamined. We note that in the ATC domain at least, the present set of data provides countries faced with controller shortages (e.g., United States, Russia, South Africa, and Australia) with one avenue for dealing with this issue and that our findings are congruent with recent field study analysis (Broach & Schroeder, 2006), which has revealed little evidence of age-related performance impairments between older and younger operators.
Given that the world’s population is ageing rapidly (Andreev & Vaupel, 2005; U.S. Census Bureau, 2004), the current results suggesting that older workers are capable of managing complex sociotechnical systems independent of chronological age (at least within the age ranges examined here) should provide a staffing solution (albeit temporary) in domains where skilled labor shortages are likely to be observed, such as ATC (Baguley, 2008;Becker & Milke, 1998). Moreover, there is also reason to be optimistic that the current evidence of older worker success in a domain as complex as ATC may be somewhat indicative of the potential older workers possess in successfully managing other complex sociotechnical systems (e.g., medical, construction, and electrical industry, where similar shortages are being faced). From a social perspective, however, harnessing the capital offered by these workers will depend on not only our ability to overcome traditional age-related stereotypes, but also on embracing the philosophy
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