The Intersection between Selection

The Intersection between Selection and Training: Future Research Directions
As mentioned earlier, many international organizations provide ITAs and IDAs to their employees in order to improve their global work performance. However, despite the plethora of research advocating the use of ITAs and IDAs as mechanisms for improving global work performance, the current research has generally assumed that everyone benefits equally from ITAs and IDAs. Given the extraordinary high costs (e.g., financial and emotional) of developing global managers, it is important to understand who will benefit the most from ITAs and IDAs. Caligiuri (2000a), for example, notes that academics and practitioners, alike, should identify those individuals with the requisite individual characteristics (e.g., personality), and then offer cross-cultural training to those identified. Cross-cultural training may only be effective when trainees are predisposed to success in the first place (Caligiuri, 2000). Certain personality traits, in particular openness to experience, extroversion, and agreeableness, and early international experiences may provide the conditions under which ITAs and IDAs will lead to greater learning of cross-national competencies.

Personality, Training, and Development
There is some evidence in the domestic training and development literature that personality traits are related to learning outcomes (e.g., Salas & Cannon-Bowers, 2001; Colquitt & Simmering, 1998; Barrick & Mount, 1991). Barrick and Mount’s (1991) meta-analysis found that the personality traits of conscientiousness, extraversion, and openness were related to training proficiency. In another example, Salgado’s (1997) meta-analysis of 36 studies found that the personality traits of openness and agreeableness were valid predictors of training proficiency.
The contact hypothesis or association hypothesis (Allport 1954, Amir 1969, Zajonc 1968) can provide theoretical justification for personality traits as predictors of learning through a training or development intervention. The contact hypothesis or association hypothesis was originally developed to examine the race relations in the United States in the 1950's and 1960's, and suggests, in brief, that the more interaction (i.e., contact) a person has with people from a given cultural group, the more positive his or her attitudes will be toward the people from that cultural group (Allport, 1954, Amir 1969, Zajonc, 1968). Church (1982) suggested that the principles of the contact hypothesis could be applied to the interpersonal interactions between international assignees and host nationals. More recently, Caligiuri (2000a) used the contact hypothesis to suggest that international assignees often learn cultural appropriate norms and behaviors through cross-cultural interactions and that international assignees vary on the personality traits necessary for relating to others.
The predisposition for cross-cultural interactions can facilitate the learning of cross-national competencies during international training and development. This is based on the assertion that interaction with people from different cultures will affect the extent to which an individual is able to use the learned skills and behaviors. The more an individual interacts with people from different cultures, the more likely he or she will be to use and apply the learned skills and behaviors. In addition, extensive interpersonal interactions will help individuals experience the consequences of using behavior or skills and to observe others and seeing the consequences of their behaviors. Such consequences would assist them to determine which behaviors result in positive outcomes and to prevent the development of unwanted or inappropriate behaviors. The dynamic interplay between individual differences and international training and development activities for improving is cross-national competence is an area which warrants additional scholarly research.
Early International Experience, Training, and Development
One type of experience that has not been given much attention by researchers is early international travel experiences or experiences gained from living outside the country of ones
citizenship as a child (Cottrell & Useem, 1994). This form of international experience has been extensively discussed in the “third country kids” (TCKs) literature (e.g., Lam & Selmer 2004; Pollock & Van Reken, 2001; Eidse & Sichel, 2003) which can provide theoretical evidence that individuals, by developing extensive early international experiences, are more likely to have learning or information processing advantage that should facilitate the learning of new behaviors and skills. Third country kids (TCKs) are individuals who have spent a part of their childhood in countries or cultures other than their own (Pollock & Van Reken, 2001). According to Pollock & Van Reken (2001: 6)

“TCKs are raised in neither/nor world. It is neither fully the world of their parents’ culture (or cultures) nor fully the world of the other culture (or cultures) in which they were raised……In the process of first living in one dominant culture and then moving to another and maybe even two or three more and often back and forth between them all, TCKs develop their own life patterns different from those who are basically born and live in one place.”

Early international travel experiences allow TCKs to develop a learning or information processing advantage, which should facilitate the learning of new behaviors and skills. From a social learning perspective when children travel to other countries, they learn behaviors, customs, and norms of that culture through direct experience or through observations of the host nationals’ behaviors (Bandura, 1997). Children with extensive travel experiences in other countries may have developed more comprehensive prior knowledge structures or sets of cognition maps about people, roles, or events that govern social behavior. The literature on the additive effect of prior knowledge (e.g., Cohen & Levinthal, 1990) and cognitive learning theories (e.g., Bower & Hilgard, 1981) suggest that accumulated prior knowledge increases both the ability to put new knowledge into memory and the ability to recall and use it.
The above discussion suggests that individuals high on openness to experience, extroversion, and agreeableness, and early international travel experience will benefit more from training and development than individuals low on these traits. Future research, however, is needed to disentangle the mechanisms that underlie these associations. A major criticism of the existing literature on international training and development effectiveness is that it is based on anecdotal evidence or broad theories and models. There is a need to develop advanced theoretical approaches to better understand how individual differences influence the relationship between ITAs and IDAs and learning/performance outcomes. In addition, future research needs to examine how non-personality individual differences, such as individual learning styles (e.g., Kolb 1984) and age (e.g., Zemke, Raines, & Filipczak, 2000) influence this relationship. Moreover, a fruitful line of inquiry would be to examine the experiences of third country kids who are now of working age and experiences cultures in the organizational context.
An issue related to cross-cultural training effectiveness should be noted. In the realm of academic research, studies that have examined the likely success of cross-cultural training have shown that cross-cultural training programs have failed to meet performance improvement needs (Kealy & Protheroe, 1996; Mendenhall et al., 2004). Kealy & Protheroe (1996), for example, reviewed empirical studies used to assess cross-cultural training effectiveness and concluded that while cross cultural training seems to be effective in achieving immediate learning results, its impact on expatriates’ performance on the assignment is not clear. Similarly, in a recent review of cross cultural training evaluation studies, Mendenhall et al, (2004) concluded that “ crosscultural training seems to be effective in enhancing knowledge and trainee satisfaction, but seems to be less effective in changing behaviors and attitudes, or in improving adjustment and performance” (p:19).
The failure of cross-cultural training to produce a significant change in cross-cultural
adjustment and in performance on the global assignment can be viewed from the classical “transfer of training problem” which is defined as the failure of the trainee to effectively and continually apply the knowledge and skills gained in training to his or her job (Broad & Newstrom, 1992). It is well known in the domestic training literature that training content often does not transfer to the actual work setting (Baldwin & Ford, 1988; Saks, 2002). For this reason, domestic research examining the ways to facilitate or improve transfer has received much attention in the recent past (e.g., Ford & Weissbein, 1997). Meanwhile cross-cultural training scholars have largely ignored the transfer issue -- to date, no research has examined the transfer problem within a cross-cultural training context. Future research needs to expand our understanding of the transfer issue within the context of cross-cultural training effectiveness.

Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 1:

Persimpangan antara pemilihan dan pelatihan: arah masa depan penelitian Seperti disebutkan sebelumnya, banyak organisasi internasional memberikan ITAs dan IDAs kepada karyawan mereka untuk meningkatkan kinerja kerja global mereka. Namun, meskipun kebanyakan penelitian yang menganjurkan penggunaan ITAs dan IDAs sebagai mekanisme untuk meningkatkan kinerja kerja global, penelitian saat ini telah umumnya diasumsikan bahwa semua orang sama-sama manfaat dari ITAs dan IDAs. Mengingat biaya yang luar biasa tinggi (misalnya, finansial dan emosional) mengembangkan manajer global, itu penting untuk memahami siapa yang akan manfaat maksimal dari ITAs dan IDAs. Caligiuri (2000a), misalnya, mencatat bahwa akademisi dan praktisi, sama, harus mengidentifikasi individu-individu dengan karakteristik individu yang diperlukan (misalnya, kepribadian), dan kemudian menawarkan pelatihan lintas budaya yang disebutkan. Pelatihan lintas budaya hanya dapat efektif ketika trainee cenderung untuk sukses di tempat pertama (Caligiuri, 2000). Ciri-ciri kepribadian tertentu, khususnya keterbukaan untuk pengalaman, merupakan bentuk kepedulian, dan agreeableness, dan pengalaman internasional dapat memberikan kondisi di mana ITAs dan IDAs akan mengakibatkan lebih besar pembelajaran lintas kompetensi. Kepribadian, pelatihan dan pengembangan Ada beberapa bukti dalam domestik pelatihan dan pengembangan sastra bahwa ciri-ciri kepribadian yang berkaitan dengan belajar hasil (misalnya, Salas & meriam-Bowers, 2001; Colquitt & mendidih, 1998; Barrick & Mount, 1991). Barrick dan Gunung 's (1991) meta-analisis ditemukan bahwa ciri-ciri kepribadian membangun kesadaran, extraversion dan keterbukaan yang berkaitan dengan pelatihan kemampuan. Dalam contoh lain, Salgado's (1997) meta-analisis 36 studi menemukan bahwa ciri-ciri kepribadian keterbukaan dan agreeableness berlaku pemrediksi pelatihan kemahiran. The contact hypothesis or association hypothesis (Allport 1954, Amir 1969, Zajonc 1968) can provide theoretical justification for personality traits as predictors of learning through a training or development intervention. The contact hypothesis or association hypothesis was originally developed to examine the race relations in the United States in the 1950's and 1960's, and suggests, in brief, that the more interaction (i.e., contact) a person has with people from a given cultural group, the more positive his or her attitudes will be toward the people from that cultural group (Allport, 1954, Amir 1969, Zajonc, 1968). Church (1982) suggested that the principles of the contact hypothesis could be applied to the interpersonal interactions between international assignees and host nationals. More recently, Caligiuri (2000a) used the contact hypothesis to suggest that international assignees often learn cultural appropriate norms and behaviors through cross-cultural interactions and that international assignees vary on the personality traits necessary for relating to others. Kecenderungan untuk interaksi lintas budaya dapat memfasilitasi pembelajaran lintas kompetensi selama internasional pelatihan dan pengembangan. Hal ini didasarkan pada pernyataan bahwa interaksi dengan orang-orang dari budaya yang berbeda akan mempengaruhi sejauh mana individu mampu menggunakan keterampilan belajar dan perilaku. Lebih individu yang berinteraksi dengan orang-orang dari budaya yang berbeda, semakin besar kemungkinan dia atau dia akan menggunakan dan menerapkan keterampilan belajar dan perilaku. Selain itu, interaksi interpersonal yang ekstensif akan membantu individu mengalami konsekuensi penggunaan perilaku atau keterampilan dan untuk mengamati orang lain dan melihat konsekuensi dari perilaku mereka. Konsekuensi tersebut akan membantu mereka untuk menentukan perilaku yang menghasilkan hasil positif dan mencegah perkembangan perilaku yang tidak diinginkan atau tidak pantas. Dinamis interaksi antara perbedaan individual dan kegiatan pelatihan dan pengembangan internasional untuk meningkatkan lintas kompetensi adalah daerah yang menjamin penelitian ilmiah tambahan. Pengalaman internasional, pelatihan dan pengembanganSalah satu jenis pengalaman yang belum diberi banyak perhatian oleh peneliti adalah awal perjalanan internasional pengalaman atau pengalaman-pengalaman yang Diperoleh dari tinggal di luar negeri yangkewarganegaraan sebagai anak (f Cottrell & Useem, 1994). Bentuk pengalaman internasional telah secara luas dibahas di "negara ketiga anak" (TCKs) Sastra (misalnya, Lam dan Selmer tahun 2004; Pollock & Van Reken, 2001; Eidse & Sichel, 2003) yang dapat menyediakan bukti teori bahwa individu, dengan mengembangkan pengalaman internasional awal yang luas, lebih mungkin untuk memiliki pembelajaran atau informasi pengolahan keuntungan yang harus memfasilitasi pembelajaran baru perilaku dan keterampilan. Negara ketiga anak-anak (TCKs) adalah individu yang telah menghabiskan bagian dari masa kanak-kanak mereka di negara atau budaya bukan miliknya (Pollock & Van Reken, 2001). Menurut Pollock & Van Reken (2001:6)"TCKs yang dibesarkan di baik / atau dunia. Hal ini tidak sepenuhnya dunia budaya orang tua mereka (atau budaya) tidak sepenuhnya dunia lain budaya (atau budaya) di mana yang mereka dibesarkan...Dalam proses pertama tinggal di satu budaya yang dominan dan kemudian pindah ke lain dan bahkan mungkin dua atau tiga lebih dan sering kembali dan sebagainya antara mereka semua, TCKs mengembangkan pola kehidupan mereka sendiri yang berbeda dari mereka yang pada dasarnya lahir dan tinggal di satu tempat."Pengalaman perjalanan internasional memungkinkan TCKs untuk mengembangkan proses pembelajaran atau informasi keuntungan, yang harus memfasilitasi pembelajaran baru perilaku dan keterampilan. Dari perspektif sosial belajar ketika anak-anak bepergian ke negara-negara lain, mereka belajar perilaku, kebiasaan, dan norma-norma budaya itu melalui pengalaman langsung atau melalui pengamatan perilaku warga negara tuan rumah (Bandura, 1997). Anak-anak dengan pengalaman perjalanan yang luas di negara-negara lain telah mengembangkan lebih komprehensif struktur pengetahuan sebelumnya atau set kognisi Maps tentang orang, peran, atau peristiwa yang mengatur perilaku sosial. Literatur tentang efek aditif pengetahuan sebelumnya (misalnya, Cohen & Levinthal, 1990) dan teori-teori kognitif belajar (misalnya, Bower & Hilgard, 1981) menyarankan bahwa akumulasi pengetahuan meningkat baik kemampuan untuk menempatkan pengetahuan baru ke dalam memori dan kemampuan untuk mengingat dan menggunakannya. Diskusi di atas menunjukkan bahwa individu-individu yang tinggi pada keterbukaan untuk pengalaman, merupakan bentuk kepedulian, dan agreeableness, dan pengalaman perjalanan internasional awal akan mendapatkan keuntungan lebih dari pelatihan dan pengembangan daripada individu yang rendah pada sifat-sifat ini. Namun, masa depan penelitian, diperlukan untuk menguraikan mekanisme yang mendasari Asosiasi ini. Kritik utama dari literatur yang ada mengenai efektivitas pelatihan dan pengembangan internasional adalah bahwa hal itu didasarkan pada bukti anekdot atau luas teori dan model. Ada kebutuhan untuk mengembangkan pendekatan teoretis maju untuk lebih memahami perbedaan bagaimana individu mempengaruhi hubungan antara ITAs dan IDAs, dan hasil pembelajaran kinerja. Selain itu, kebutuhan riset masa depan untuk memeriksa perbedaan individu bagaimana bebas kepribadian, seperti gaya pembelajaran individual (misalnya, Kolb 1984) dan umur (misalnya, Zemke, Raines, & Filipczak, 2000) mempengaruhi hubungan ini. Selain itu, garis berbuah penyelidikan akan memeriksa pengalaman ketiga negara anak-anak yang sekarang bekerja usia dan pengalaman budaya dalam konteks organisasi. Masalah yang berkaitan dengan efektivitas pelatihan lintas budaya harus dicantumkan. Dalam dunia akademis, penelitian yang telah meneliti kemungkinan keberhasilan pelatihan lintas budaya telah menunjukkan bahwa program pelatihan lintas budaya telah gagal untuk memenuhi kebutuhan perbaikan kinerja (Kealy & Protheroe, 1996; Mendenhall et al., 2004). Kealy & Protheroe (1996), misalnya, meninjau studi empirik digunakan untuk menilai efektivitas pelatihan lintas budaya dan menyimpulkan bahwa sementara pelatihan lintas budaya tampaknya efektif dalam mencapai hasil segera belajar, dampak pada kinerja ekspatriat pada tugas ini tidak jelas. Demikian pula, dalam review baru-baru salib studi evaluasi pelatihan budaya, Mendenhall et al, (2004) menyimpulkan bahwa "pelatihan crosscultural tampaknya efektif dalam meningkatkan pengetahuan dan pelatihan kepuasan, tetapi tampaknya kurang efektif dalam mengubah perilaku dan sikap, atau meningkatkan penyesuaian dan kinerja" (p:19). Kegagalan Antarbudaya pelatihan untuk menghasilkan perubahan yang signifikan dalam lintas budayapenyesuaian dan kinerja pada penetapan global dapat dilihat dari klasik "transfer pelatihan masalah" yang didefinisikan sebagai kegagalan trainee untuk secara efektif dan terus menerapkan pengetahuan dan keterampilan yang diperoleh dalam pelatihan untuk nya pekerjaan (luas & Newstrom, 1992). Hal ini juga diketahui dalam literatur pelatihan domestik yang konten pelatihan sering tidak mentransfer ke pengaturan pekerjaan sebenarnya (Baldwin & Ford, 1988; Saks, 2002). Untuk alasan ini, penelitian domestik yang meneliti cara untuk memfasilitasi atau meningkatkan transfer telah menerima banyak perhatian pada masa lalu (misalnya, Ford & Weissbein, 1997). Sementara itu sarjana Antarbudaya pelatihan telah diabaikan masalah transfer - to-date, tidak ada penelitian telah menyelidiki masalah transfer dalam konteks pelatihan lintas budaya. Kebutuhan riset masa depan untuk memperluas pemahaman kita tentang masalah transfer dalam konteks efektivitas pelatihan lintas budaya.