Several studies have also examined experience-based sparing in demandi terjemahan - Several studies have also examined experience-based sparing in demandi Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

Several studies have also examined

Several studies have also examined experience-based sparing in demanding professions. For example, Tsang and Shaner (1998; see also Tsang & Voss, 1996) investigated the ability of pilots and nonpilots of varying ages to perform a series of single and dual tasks. They found reduced age-related differences on some dual tasks for older pilots but not for nonpilots. However, experience-based mitigation of age-related differences was not found for single task performance. Such a pattern of age-related sparing is not unexpected given the need to frequently time-share and switch between tasks during piloting. Morrow and colleagues have found that older pilots perform similarly to younger pilots on a variety of air traffic communication tasks, particularly when the messages are contextually relevant, when the pilots are permitted to read the messages at their own pace, and when permitted to take notes (Morrow, Leirer, Altiere, & Fitzsimmons, 1994; Morrow, Wickens, Rantanen, Chang, & Marcus, 2008, see also Taylor, Kennedy, Noda, & Yesavage, 2007). Thus, older pilots capitalize on their wealth of domain relevant knowledge to compensate for age-related deficits in working memory.
Although such results are encouraging, these studies have historically investigated and subsequently found evidence of experience-based sparing of abilities that represent only a subset of those needed to succeed in the real world. However, operators managing complex sociotechnical systems must exercise a variety of skills and abilities to maintain optimal performance levels. For example, in aviation, pilots must exhibit sound flight control and navigation ability, in addition to being able to communicate with other pilots and controllers. Hence, observations of experience-based sparing in instances where only a small subset of desired abilities (e.g., communication) are held up to scrutiny (e.g., Morrow et al., 1994, 2003, 2004, 2006) limit the generalizability of such findings.
The need to extrapolate such findings to the real world is pressing. Consider the profession of air traffic control (ATC), which is experiencing severe staffing shortages on a global scale. For example, near misses between aircraft, caused as a result of staffing shortages across Russia, Australia, South Africa, and the United States, are getting close to becoming midair disasters, and in some cases airlines are being forced to choose between cancelling, delaying, or diverting flights, or having loaded jetliners flying through uncontrolled airspace (Baguley, 2008).
Such shortages have been exacerbated by the presence of decades-old mandatory retirement policies that have been established over concerns of age-related performance declines. In the United States, for example, controllers must retire by the age of 56, with numerous studies demonstrating age-related performance declines being cited as justification for enforcing such policies (e.g.,Heil, 1999a, 1999b; Mathews & Cobb, 1974; Trites & Cobb, 1962;VanDeventer & Baxter, 1984). However, these studies have been characterized by (a) reliance on subjective ratings (which can be biased against older adults; see Cobb, 1968) and (b) employment of tasks that often do not reflect operational constraints or afford skilled operators the ability to use strategies acquired over the years. Thus, it is perhaps unsurprising that previous investigations have found limited evidence of success among older adults in ATC.
Evidence of experience-based sparing in such a complex domain has far-reaching implications. Within the ATC context alone, concerns over projected severe controller staffing shortages could be addressed by affording older controllers the opportunity to stay on the job longer. More generally, it may be the case that evidence of experience-based mitigation in a domain such as ATC could provide an indication of the ameliorative benefits that expertise holds as a means of offsetting the detrimental effects of advancing age among operators managing other complex sociotechnical systems (e.g., medicine, construction, industrialized operations).
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Present Research
Our study employed older and younger professional air traffic controllers and age-matched noncontrollers who collectively performed a battery of cognitive tasks and simulated ATC tasks that varied in difficulty. The tasks in the cognitive task battery were selected to provide measures of both ATC domain-relevant abilities and less relevant measures of different aspects of cognition (see Wickens, Mavor, & McGee, 1997). Domain-relevant abilities included inhibitory control, task-switching ability, visuospatial ability, working memory, and breadth of attention. Less relevant abilities included processing speed and inductive reasoning. In addition to the cognitive battery, ATC tasks were administered to assess problem-solving ability under different levels of time pressure in a variety of different ATC scenarios. We predicted that, although high levels of experience would do little to ameliorate the detrimental effects of advancing age on cognitive abilities not directly related to ATC, experience would offset potential age-related decrements on those cognitive abilities that are more directly related to ATC as well as on the simulated ATC tasks themselves. More specifically, given the nature of the ATC task, we expected that the abilities of inhibitory or interference control, task switching, visuospatial processing, working memory, and breadth of attention may display some experience-related sparing of aging decrements. On the other hand, we did not expect processing speed or inductive reasoning to show experience-related sparing given that these abilities are less germane to the task of ATC.
In addition to enabling us to examine whether ATC experience influences age-related differences in basic cognitive abilities, the inclusion of the cognitive battery enabled us to address, in part, the “confound of nature” (Morrow, in press) that is inherent in most studies of Experience × Age interactions. That is, because experience tends to increase with age, there is a natural confound in most cross-sectional studies of age and experience (see Hoyer & Ingolfsdottir, 2003, for a rare exception). The cognitive battery enabled us to ask whether the older controllers would outperform the older noncontrollers on a wide variety of cognitive tasks or, as predicted, on only those tasks most closely related to the skills necessary for efficient ATC.
Given that air traffic controllers are generally retired by 56 years of age in the United States, we conducted our study in Canada where controllers can work until 65 years of age.
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Method
Participants
Thirty-six licensed ATC controllers and 36 noncontrollers served as participants, with 18 older and 18 younger adults per group. Older controllers (all men) were between the ages of 53 and
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Beberapa studi juga telah dikaji berbasis pengalaman hemat dalam menuntut profesi. Sebagai contoh, Tsang dan Shaner (1998; Lihat juga Tsang & Voss, 1996) diselidiki kemampuan pilot dan nonpilots dari segala usia untuk melakukan serangkaian tugas tunggal dan ganda. Mereka menemukan pengurangan Umur-perbedaan terkait di beberapa tugas ganda untuk pilot yang lebih tua tetapi tidak untuk nonpilots. Namun, berbasis pengalaman mitigasi Umur-perbedaan terkait tidak ditemukan untuk satu tugas kinerja. Seperti pola yang berkaitan dengan usia hemat ini tidak terduga diberikan perlu sering time-share dan beralih di antara tugas-tugas selama menguji coba. Besok dan rekan menemukan bahwa pilot remaja melakukan yang sama untuk pilot muda di berbagai tugas komunikasi udara lalu lintas, terutama ketika pesan relevan secara kontekstual, ketika pilot diijinkan untuk membaca pesan dengan langkah mereka sendiri, dan ketika diizinkan untuk mencatat (Morrow, Leirer, Altiere, & Fitzsimmons, 1994; Morrow, Wickens, Rantanen, Chang, & Marcus, 2008, lihat juga Taylor, Kennedy, Noda, & Yesavage, 2007). Dengan demikian, remaja pilot memanfaatkan kekayaan mereka dari domain pengetahuan yang relevan untuk mengkompensasi berkaitan dengan usia defisit dalam memori kerja.Meskipun hasil tersebut mendorong, studi ini memiliki historis diselidiki dan kemudian menemukan bukti berbasis pengalaman hemat kemampuan yang mewakili hanya sebuah subset dari orang-orang yang diperlukan untuk sukses di dunia nyata. Namun, operator mengelola sistem kompleks sociotechnical harus latihan berbagai keterampilan dan kemampuan untuk mempertahankan tingkat kinerja yang optimal. Sebagai contoh, dalam penerbangan, pilot harus menunjukkan kemampuan navigasi dan kontrol penerbangan suara, selain mampu berkomunikasi dengan pilot dan controller. Oleh karena itu, pengamatan berbasis pengalaman hemat dalam kasus yang mana hanya subset kecil dari diinginkan kemampuan (misalnya, komunikasi) mengangkat untuk pengawasan (misalnya, Morrow et al, 1994, 2003, 2004, 2006) membatasi generalizability temuan tersebut.Perlu ekstrapolasi temuan tersebut ke dunia nyata adalah menekan. Mempertimbangkan profesi kontrol lalu lintas udara (ATC), yang mengalami kekurangan staf yang parah pada skala global. Sebagai contoh, dekat merindukan antara pesawat, disebabkan sebagai akibat dari kekurangan staf di seluruh Amerika Serikat, Australia, Afrika Selatan dan Amerika Serikat, semakin dekat untuk menjadi bencana udara, dan dalam beberapa kasus penerbangan dipaksa untuk memilih antara membatalkan, menunda, atau mengalihkan penerbangan, atau memiliki dimuat jetliners terbang melalui udara tidak terkendali (Baguley, 2008).Kekurangan tersebut telah diperburuk oleh kehadiran pensiun puluhan tahun kebijakan yang telah didirikan atas masalah penurunan kinerja yang berkaitan dengan usia. Di Amerika Serikat, misalnya, controller harus pensiun pada usia 56, dengan berbagai penelitian menunjukkan penurunan kinerja yang berkaitan dengan usia yang dikutip sebagai pembenaran untuk menegakkan kebijakan tersebut (e.g.,Heil, 1999a, 1999b; Mathews & Cobb, 1974; Trites & Cobb, 1962;VanDeventer & Baxter, 1984). Namun, studi ini yang telah ditandai oleh () ketergantungan pada penilaian subjektif (yang dapat menjadi bias terhadap dewasa; Lihat Cobb, 1968) dan (b) pekerjaan tugas-tugas yang sering tidak mencerminkan kendala operasional atau mampu terampil operator kemampuan untuk menggunakan strategi yang diperoleh selama bertahun-tahun. Dengan demikian, hal ini mungkin mengejutkan bahwa penyelidikan sebelumnya telah menemukan bukti terbatas sukses antara orang dewasa yang lebih tua di ATC.Bukti berbasis pengalaman hemat dalam sebuah domain yang kompleks memiliki dampak lebih besar. Dalam konteks ATC sendirian, kekhawatiran diproyeksikan controller parah kekurangan staf dapat diatasi dengan affording remaja controller kesempatan untuk tinggal di tempat kerja yang lebih lama. Lebih umum, ini mungkin terjadi bahwa bukti mitigasi berbasis pengalaman di domain seperti ATC dapat memberikan indikasi manfaat ameliorative keahlian yang memegang sebagai sarana untuk mengimbangi efek yang merugikan umur antara operator mengelola sistem kompleks sociotechnical lain (misalnya, obat, konstruksi, industri operasi).Pergi ke:Pergi ke:Sekarang penelitianPenelitian kami bekerja pengontrol lalu-lintas udara profesional yang lebih tua dan lebih muda dan cocok umur noncontrollers yang secara kolektif melakukan baterai kognitif tugas dan tugas-tugas ATC simulasi yang bervariasi dalam kesulitan. Tugas-tugas di baterai kognitif tugas yang dipilih untuk memberikan langkah-langkah kedua ATC domain-relevan kemampuan dan kurang langkah-langkah yang relevan dari berbagai aspek kognisi (Lihat Wickens, Mavor, & McGee, 1997). Kemampuan domain-relevan termasuk penghambatan kontrol, kemampuan tugas-switching, visuospatial kemampuan, memori kerja dan luasnya perhatian. Kemampuan kurang relevan termasuk penalaran induktif dan kecepatan pemrosesan. Selain baterai kognitif, ATC tugas yang diberikan untuk menilai kemampuan pemecahan masalah di bawah berbagai tingkat tekanan waktu dalam berbagai ATC skenario yang berbeda. Kami memperkirakan bahwa, meskipun tingkat tinggi pengalaman akan melakukan sedikit untuk memperbaiki efek yang merugikan usia lanjut pada kemampuan kognitif yang tidak terkait langsung dengan ATC, pengalaman akan mengimbangi potensi usaha berkaitan dengan usia mereka kemampuan kognitif yang lebih langsung berhubungan dengan ATC maupun simulasi ATC tugas sendiri. Lebih khusus lagi, kita mengingat sifat tugas ATC, diharapkan bahwa kemampuan penghambatan atau gangguan kontrol, tugas beralih, visuospatial proses, memori kerja, dan luasnya perhatian mungkin menampilkan beberapa pengalaman yang berhubungan dengan hemat penuaan usaha. Di sisi lain, kita tidak mengharapkan kecepatan pemrosesan atau penalaran induktif untuk menunjukkan pengalaman terkait hemat mengingat bahwa kemampuan ini kurang erat ke tugas ATC.Selain memungkinkan kita untuk memeriksa apakah pengalaman ATC mempengaruhi Umur-perbedaan terkait dalam dasar kemampuan kognitif, dimasukkannya baterai kognitif memungkinkan kita untuk mengatasi, sebagian, "memalukan alam" (Morrow, pers) itulah melekat dalam kebanyakan studi pengalaman × umur interaksi. Itu adalah, karena pengalaman cenderung meningkat dengan usia, ada alami membingungkan dalam studi paling penampang dari usia dan pengalaman (Lihat Hoyer & Ingolfsdottir, 2003, untuk pengecualian langka). Baterai kognitif memungkinkan kami untuk menanyakan apakah remaja kontroler akan mengungguli noncontrollers remaja pada berbagai tugas kognitif atau, seperti yang diperkirakan, pada hanya tugas-tugas yang paling erat terkait dengan keterampilan yang diperlukan untuk efisien ATC.Mengingat bahwa pengontrol lalu-lintas udara umumnya pensiun usia 56 tahun di Amerika Serikat, kami melakukan penelitian kami di Kanada yang mana controller dapat bekerja sampai 65 tahun.Pergi ke:Pergi ke:MetodePesertaTiga puluh enam berlisensi ATC controller dan 36 noncontrollers menjabat sebagai peserta, dengan 18 remaja dan dewasa muda 18 per kelompok. Remaja controller (semua orang) adalah antara usia 53 dan
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Several studies have also examined experience-based sparing in demanding professions. For example, Tsang and Shaner (1998; see also Tsang & Voss, 1996) investigated the ability of pilots and nonpilots of varying ages to perform a series of single and dual tasks. They found reduced age-related differences on some dual tasks for older pilots but not for nonpilots. However, experience-based mitigation of age-related differences was not found for single task performance. Such a pattern of age-related sparing is not unexpected given the need to frequently time-share and switch between tasks during piloting. Morrow and colleagues have found that older pilots perform similarly to younger pilots on a variety of air traffic communication tasks, particularly when the messages are contextually relevant, when the pilots are permitted to read the messages at their own pace, and when permitted to take notes (Morrow, Leirer, Altiere, & Fitzsimmons, 1994; Morrow, Wickens, Rantanen, Chang, & Marcus, 2008, see also Taylor, Kennedy, Noda, & Yesavage, 2007). Thus, older pilots capitalize on their wealth of domain relevant knowledge to compensate for age-related deficits in working memory.
Although such results are encouraging, these studies have historically investigated and subsequently found evidence of experience-based sparing of abilities that represent only a subset of those needed to succeed in the real world. However, operators managing complex sociotechnical systems must exercise a variety of skills and abilities to maintain optimal performance levels. For example, in aviation, pilots must exhibit sound flight control and navigation ability, in addition to being able to communicate with other pilots and controllers. Hence, observations of experience-based sparing in instances where only a small subset of desired abilities (e.g., communication) are held up to scrutiny (e.g., Morrow et al., 1994, 2003, 2004, 2006) limit the generalizability of such findings.
The need to extrapolate such findings to the real world is pressing. Consider the profession of air traffic control (ATC), which is experiencing severe staffing shortages on a global scale. For example, near misses between aircraft, caused as a result of staffing shortages across Russia, Australia, South Africa, and the United States, are getting close to becoming midair disasters, and in some cases airlines are being forced to choose between cancelling, delaying, or diverting flights, or having loaded jetliners flying through uncontrolled airspace (Baguley, 2008).
Such shortages have been exacerbated by the presence of decades-old mandatory retirement policies that have been established over concerns of age-related performance declines. In the United States, for example, controllers must retire by the age of 56, with numerous studies demonstrating age-related performance declines being cited as justification for enforcing such policies (e.g.,Heil, 1999a, 1999b; Mathews & Cobb, 1974; Trites & Cobb, 1962;VanDeventer & Baxter, 1984). However, these studies have been characterized by (a) reliance on subjective ratings (which can be biased against older adults; see Cobb, 1968) and (b) employment of tasks that often do not reflect operational constraints or afford skilled operators the ability to use strategies acquired over the years. Thus, it is perhaps unsurprising that previous investigations have found limited evidence of success among older adults in ATC.
Evidence of experience-based sparing in such a complex domain has far-reaching implications. Within the ATC context alone, concerns over projected severe controller staffing shortages could be addressed by affording older controllers the opportunity to stay on the job longer. More generally, it may be the case that evidence of experience-based mitigation in a domain such as ATC could provide an indication of the ameliorative benefits that expertise holds as a means of offsetting the detrimental effects of advancing age among operators managing other complex sociotechnical systems (e.g., medicine, construction, industrialized operations).
Go to:
Go to:
Present Research
Our study employed older and younger professional air traffic controllers and age-matched noncontrollers who collectively performed a battery of cognitive tasks and simulated ATC tasks that varied in difficulty. The tasks in the cognitive task battery were selected to provide measures of both ATC domain-relevant abilities and less relevant measures of different aspects of cognition (see Wickens, Mavor, & McGee, 1997). Domain-relevant abilities included inhibitory control, task-switching ability, visuospatial ability, working memory, and breadth of attention. Less relevant abilities included processing speed and inductive reasoning. In addition to the cognitive battery, ATC tasks were administered to assess problem-solving ability under different levels of time pressure in a variety of different ATC scenarios. We predicted that, although high levels of experience would do little to ameliorate the detrimental effects of advancing age on cognitive abilities not directly related to ATC, experience would offset potential age-related decrements on those cognitive abilities that are more directly related to ATC as well as on the simulated ATC tasks themselves. More specifically, given the nature of the ATC task, we expected that the abilities of inhibitory or interference control, task switching, visuospatial processing, working memory, and breadth of attention may display some experience-related sparing of aging decrements. On the other hand, we did not expect processing speed or inductive reasoning to show experience-related sparing given that these abilities are less germane to the task of ATC.
In addition to enabling us to examine whether ATC experience influences age-related differences in basic cognitive abilities, the inclusion of the cognitive battery enabled us to address, in part, the “confound of nature” (Morrow, in press) that is inherent in most studies of Experience × Age interactions. That is, because experience tends to increase with age, there is a natural confound in most cross-sectional studies of age and experience (see Hoyer & Ingolfsdottir, 2003, for a rare exception). The cognitive battery enabled us to ask whether the older controllers would outperform the older noncontrollers on a wide variety of cognitive tasks or, as predicted, on only those tasks most closely related to the skills necessary for efficient ATC.
Given that air traffic controllers are generally retired by 56 years of age in the United States, we conducted our study in Canada where controllers can work until 65 years of age.
Go to:
Go to:
Method
Participants
Thirty-six licensed ATC controllers and 36 noncontrollers served as participants, with 18 older and 18 younger adults per group. Older controllers (all men) were between the ages of 53 and
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