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CHAPTER 9 STRATEGY AND PROSPECTS FO

CHAPTER 9 STRATEGY AND PROSPECTS FOR THE SUCCESSFUL INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Economic incentives as instruments of environmental management in developing countries have many advantages over command-and-control regulations. First, they can achieve the desired effect at
the least possible cost—this is vital to developing countries with limited resources and a dire need to maintain their competitiveness in world markets. Second, economic incentives are easier to enforce—this is important for countries with limited enforcement capability. Third, economic incentives present fewer opportunities for rent-seeking behavior than do regulations and therefore they are likely to both be more effective and more equitable. Finally, unlike regulations that require bloated bureaucracies and large budgets, economic incentives generate revenues which should be welcomed by countries facing tight budgets and budgetary deficits.
There is a large tool kit of economic instruments that can be used in support (or replacement) of command and control regulations. Each instrument has several variants and the potential
combinations of instruments are practically infinite. Choosing the right instrument or combination of instruments for a particular problem and circumstance makes the difference between efficient and effective intervention that mitigates market failures and a costly distortion that worsens the allocation of resources and reduces social welfare. What works under one set of circumstances may be totally ineffectual under another.
Elements of a Successful Strategy
The level of development and structure of the economy are critical factors (because they determine enforcement needs and capabilities), as are social organization and culture. For example, in a country in a early stage of development with an economy dominated by agriculture, small-scale industry, and a large informal sector, regulations such as effluent standards and economic instruments such as effluent charges are likely to be ineffective because they are costly to monitor and enforce. Given the smallness, scattered distribution, and elusive nature of artisanal and small-scale industry, the costs of monitoring are likely to be high relative to the damage caused by the individual polluting activity; similarly, the administrative costs of collecting charges for such entities are likely to be large relative to the expected revenues. Under such circumstances the right intervention would be indirect instruments, such as product charges and differential taxes, imposed at easily monitored points (i.e., imports, exports, raw material production, etc.). Moreover, economic instruments in developing countries need to be at the same time both simpler and more sophisticated than in developed countries: simpler, because the developing countries have a limited administrative capacity for tax and charge collection; more sophisticated because the resource systems and ecology (especially in the tropics) are more complex than in temperate developed countries.
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CHAPTER 9 STRATEGY AND PROSPECTS FOR THE SUCCESSFUL INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIESEconomic incentives as instruments of environmental management in developing countries have many advantages over command-and-control regulations. First, they can achieve the desired effect atthe least possible cost—this is vital to developing countries with limited resources and a dire need to maintain their competitiveness in world markets. Second, economic incentives are easier to enforce—this is important for countries with limited enforcement capability. Third, economic incentives present fewer opportunities for rent-seeking behavior than do regulations and therefore they are likely to both be more effective and more equitable. Finally, unlike regulations that require bloated bureaucracies and large budgets, economic incentives generate revenues which should be welcomed by countries facing tight budgets and budgetary deficits.There is a large tool kit of economic instruments that can be used in support (or replacement) of command and control regulations. Each instrument has several variants and the potentialcombinations of instruments are practically infinite. Choosing the right instrument or combination of instruments for a particular problem and circumstance makes the difference between efficient and effective intervention that mitigates market failures and a costly distortion that worsens the allocation of resources and reduces social welfare. What works under one set of circumstances may be totally ineffectual under another.Elements of a Successful StrategyThe level of development and structure of the economy are critical factors (because they determine enforcement needs and capabilities), as are social organization and culture. For example, in a country in a early stage of development with an economy dominated by agriculture, small-scale industry, and a large informal sector, regulations such as effluent standards and economic instruments such as effluent charges are likely to be ineffective because they are costly to monitor and enforce. Given the smallness, scattered distribution, and elusive nature of artisanal and small-scale industry, the costs of monitoring are likely to be high relative to the damage caused by the individual polluting activity; similarly, the administrative costs of collecting charges for such entities are likely to be large relative to the expected revenues. Under such circumstances the right intervention would be indirect instruments, such as product charges and differential taxes, imposed at easily monitored points (i.e., imports, exports, raw material production, etc.). Moreover, economic instruments in developing countries need to be at the same time both simpler and more sophisticated than in developed countries: simpler, because the developing countries have a limited administrative capacity for tax and charge collection; more sophisticated because the resource systems and ecology (especially in the tropics) are more complex than in temperate developed countries.
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BAB 9 STRATEGI DAN PROSPEK UNTUK BERHASIL PENDAHULUAN INSTRUMEN EKONOMI DI NEGARA BERKEMBANG
insentif ekonomi sebagai instrumen pengelolaan lingkungan di negara-negara berkembang memiliki banyak keunggulan dibandingkan peraturan perintah-dan-kontrol. Pertama, mereka dapat mencapai efek yang diinginkan pada
biaya-ini yang paling mungkin sangat penting untuk negara-negara dengan sumber daya yang terbatas dan membutuhkan untuk mempertahankan daya saing mereka di pasar negara berkembang. Kedua, insentif ekonomi lebih mudah untuk menegakkan-hal ini penting bagi negara-negara dengan kemampuan penegakan terbatas. Ketiga, insentif ekonomi saat ini lebih sedikit kesempatan untuk perilaku rent-seeking daripada peraturan dan karena itu mereka cenderung baik menjadi lebih efektif dan lebih adil. Akhirnya, tidak seperti peraturan yang membutuhkan birokrasi kembung dan anggaran yang besar, insentif ekonomi menghasilkan pendapatan yang harus diterima oleh negara-negara menghadapi anggaran ketat dan defisit anggaran.
Ada tool kit besar instrumen ekonomi yang dapat digunakan untuk mendukung (atau penggantian) perintah dan peraturan kontrol. Setiap instrumen memiliki beberapa varian dan potensi
kombinasi instrumen praktis tak terbatas. Memilih instrumen yang tepat atau kombinasi instrumen untuk masalah tertentu dan keadaan membuat perbedaan antara intervensi yang efisien dan efektif yang meringankan kegagalan pasar dan distorsi mahal yang memperburuk alokasi sumber daya dan mengurangi kesejahteraan sosial. Apa yang bekerja di bawah satu set keadaan mungkin benar-benar tidak efektif di bawah yang lain.
Elemen Strategi Sukses
Tingkat pembangunan dan struktur ekonomi merupakan faktor penting (karena mereka menentukan kebutuhan penegakan hukum dan kemampuan), seperti organisasi sosial dan budaya. Misalnya, di negara di tahap awal pengembangan dengan ekonomi didominasi oleh sektor pertanian, industri kecil, dan sektor informal yang besar, peraturan seperti standar limbah dan instrumen ekonomi seperti biaya limbah cenderung tidak efektif karena mereka mahal untuk memonitor dan menegakkan. Mengingat kecilnya, distribusi tersebar, dan sifat yang sulit dipahami rakyat dan industri skala kecil, biaya pemantauan cenderung relatif tinggi terhadap kerusakan yang disebabkan oleh aktivitas polusi individu; sama, biaya administrasi mengumpulkan biaya untuk entitas tersebut cenderung relatif besar untuk pendapatan yang diharapkan. Dalam keadaan seperti intervensi yang tepat akan menjadi alat tidak langsung, seperti biaya produk dan pajak diferensial, yang dikenakan pada titik-titik dengan mudah dipantau (yaitu, impor, ekspor, produksi bahan baku, dll). Selain itu, instrumen ekonomi di negara berkembang harus pada saat yang sama baik sederhana dan lebih canggih dibandingkan di negara maju: sederhana, karena negara-negara berkembang memiliki kapasitas administratif yang terbatas untuk pajak dan biaya penagihan; lebih canggih karena sistem sumber daya dan ekologi (terutama di daerah tropis) lebih kompleks dibandingkan di negara maju sedang.
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