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CHAPTER 9 STRATEGY AND PROSPECTS FOR THE SUCCESSFUL INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIESEconomic incentives as instruments of environmental management in developing countries have many advantages over command-and-control regulations. First, they can achieve the desired effect atthe least possible cost—this is vital to developing countries with limited resources and a dire need to maintain their competitiveness in world markets. Second, economic incentives are easier to enforce—this is important for countries with limited enforcement capability. Third, economic incentives present fewer opportunities for rent-seeking behavior than do regulations and therefore they are likely to both be more effective and more equitable. Finally, unlike regulations that require bloated bureaucracies and large budgets, economic incentives generate revenues which should be welcomed by countries facing tight budgets and budgetary deficits.There is a large tool kit of economic instruments that can be used in support (or replacement) of command and control regulations. Each instrument has several variants and the potentialcombinations of instruments are practically infinite. Choosing the right instrument or combination of instruments for a particular problem and circumstance makes the difference between efficient and effective intervention that mitigates market failures and a costly distortion that worsens the allocation of resources and reduces social welfare. What works under one set of circumstances may be totally ineffectual under another.Elements of a Successful StrategyThe level of development and structure of the economy are critical factors (because they determine enforcement needs and capabilities), as are social organization and culture. For example, in a country in a early stage of development with an economy dominated by agriculture, small-scale industry, and a large informal sector, regulations such as effluent standards and economic instruments such as effluent charges are likely to be ineffective because they are costly to monitor and enforce. Given the smallness, scattered distribution, and elusive nature of artisanal and small-scale industry, the costs of monitoring are likely to be high relative to the damage caused by the individual polluting activity; similarly, the administrative costs of collecting charges for such entities are likely to be large relative to the expected revenues. Under such circumstances the right intervention would be indirect instruments, such as product charges and differential taxes, imposed at easily monitored points (i.e., imports, exports, raw material production, etc.). Moreover, economic instruments in developing countries need to be at the same time both simpler and more sophisticated than in developed countries: simpler, because the developing countries have a limited administrative capacity for tax and charge collection; more sophisticated because the resource systems and ecology (especially in the tropics) are more complex than in temperate developed countries.
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