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Structural Effects in Education 115

Structural Effects in Education 115
EEO's (Coleman et al., 1966) conception of school organization can be read from Section
3.2, "Relation of School Factors to Achievement" (pp. 290-325). That analysis included
aggregated school characteristics (e.g., average teacher educational level, racial composition),
individual characteristics statistically controlled (e.g., social background, race/ethnicity), and
school properties (e.g., facilities and curriculum) to assess their impact on individual achievement.
It led to such conclusions as the following: "The higher achievement of all racial and
ethnic groups in schools with greater proportions of white students is largely, perhaps wholly,
related to effects associated with the student body's educational background and aspirations"
(p. 307); this is a standard structural effects proposition. EEO also contained analyses that
related school facilities and curriculum (e.g., labs, accelerated curriculum, guidance facilities,
teacher characteristics, grouping and tracking; and school size—aggregated or global school
properties) to individual achievement. What happens in schools and what mechanisms operate
so that such properties influence individual achievement? We don't know.
Although the logic of EEO's (Coleman et al, 1966) analysis is clear, it contained no
conceptualization and description of school organization and the schooling process beyond
the summation of plausible but ad hoc school characteristics. The contrast with Union Democracy
is striking. In his studies of schools Coleman over time de-emphasized the substantive
treatment of work and its settings, of occupation, and of organizational structure that
characterized Union Democracy (and other organizational studies). This was anomalous in
light of his report on the major intellectual influences on him during his years at Columbia
(Coleman, 1990a). In that account, he described how Lipset approached the difficulties of
combining "macrosocial problems and sample survey techniques" (p. 95).
Although quantitative analyses of the survey data can be found throughout the book and indeed are
central to the study, it was the framework of ideas from social theory that generated the
analyses . . . [T]he initial ideas were richly developed, elaborated, and modified by the data (p. 95;
Coleman's italics),
gathered by observation and by interview, and gathered from historical materials and from
union publications. Despite the positive sentiments he expressed in his retrospective essay, he
proceeded to follow an approach to educational research that drew far more from Lazarsfeld
than from Lipset and others in the Columbia organizational tradition, as evidenced by his first
book. The Adolescent Society (Coleman, 1961), later by EEO and subsequently by his studies
of the public and private educational sectors. The latter relied on evidence from large-scale
cross-sectional and later longitudinal surveys whose formulation and design bore Lazarsfeld's
stamp; through them he became a major force in shaping how we look at schools and their
effects.
The Adolescent Society (Coleman, 1961) employed survey methods to investigate 10
secondary schools. The formulation of both adolescent society and of school was built on the
concept of "value climate" to explain patterns of individual behavior, with climate referring
both to a societal phenomenon, similar to Durkheim's notion of "current," and to its manifestations
in different schools. The book employed a conception of adolescence as a life-cycle
stage where "the child of high-school age.. .is 'cut off from the rest of society, forced inward
toward his own age group, made to carry out his whole social life with others his own
age . . . [and] maintains only a few threads of connection with the outside adult society" (p. 3).
The value climate of schools was the main organizing principle, but whether it was the
main force at work is an open question (Coleman, 1961). The chapter "Scholastic Effects of
the Social System," for example, presented a familiar kind of contextual analysis: within schools,
Coleman showed relations between the education of students' parents and academic outcomes
(e.g., hours per day studying, intention to go to college). Identifying the source of variation in




116 Robert Dreeben
outcomes is difficult, however; although the text attributed it sometimes to the value (or social)
climate of the schools, one cannot distinguish this influence from the variety of other
school characteristics identified (but not treated systematically) or from the societal notion of
adolescent culture. Though he gathered information about the schools, he treated them as
internally undifferentiated and thereby put mechanisms linking adolescent culture to outcomes
out of reach. (Note that although he presented sociograms that differed by school, these figured
in identifying different kinds of adolescent subgroupings, not in explaining scholastic
effects.) This study, along with Wilson's (1959) article, solidified the concept of the school
value climate as a conventional assumption in subsequent work on school effects.
EEO (Coleman et al., 1966) took an additional step away from organizational analysis,
bolstered by the advent of high-speed computers that handled multivariate regression with
huge samples of participants and many variables. This capacity allowed the use of large-scale
surveys for their obvious advantages, while reducing the likelihood of considering aspects of
school organization and functioning not readily revealed by such methods. It would be wrong
to argue, however, that EEO took no substantive position on school organization. That position,
however, could only be inferred from the actual variables employed to describe school
characteristics because EEO lacked explicit substantive arguments about social structure, the
schooling process, and how work is organized and carried out. Yet, no one else at that time had
developed persuasive formulations of these matters with respect to schools and to schooling
even though this sort of conceptualizing had occurred in other fields, most notably in studies
of industry, of government, of hospitals, of voluntary associations (political parties and unions),
and of the military.
EEO's (Coleman et al., 1966) influence on the subsequent agenda of the sociology of
education has been colossal. It became a prototype (with variations) for later investigations
rooted more in the Lazarsfeld than in the Merton style, exploiting the advantages of survey
design and analysis more than the substantive investigation of school organization and of
schooling. It stimulated the employment of large surveys to study educational effects, solidified
the use of structural (contextual) effects designs, and introduced school properties other
than normative climate into the analysis of school effects. Yet it provided little direct stimulation
to the analysis of school structure, educational work, and the schooling process—to the
issues that the substantive tradition at Columbia might have inspired in studies of education,
but did not.
FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS: PRO AND CON
EEO (Coleman et al., 1966) was not the sole influence on future approaches to educational
effects; other investigations pursued parallel interests employing similar formulations. Michael
(1961), analyzing evidence from a national study, aimed to discover whether family status or
ability was a better predictor of college attendance depending on the social-class climate of
the school, with individual family status held constant. This work recast earlier studies by
Kahl (1953) and by Sewell and colleagues (1957) into a structural effects framework, but it
did so by conflating a variety of other school characteristics (e.g., percent seniors enrolled in
college curriculum, size of community library, seniors whose best friend plans college, etc.)
with class-based school climate. Michael (1961) expressed his argument in a predictive framework
and demonstrated conditional relations among ability, family status, school climate, and
college plans—as anticipated. Even though this study was not designed to explore the meaning
of climate or to discover how it fit into some causal process, it inadvertently anticipated

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Structural Effects in Education 115EEO's (Coleman et al., 1966) conception of school organization can be read from Section3.2, "Relation of School Factors to Achievement" (pp. 290-325). That analysis includedaggregated school characteristics (e.g., average teacher educational level, racial composition),individual characteristics statistically controlled (e.g., social background, race/ethnicity), andschool properties (e.g., facilities and curriculum) to assess their impact on individual achievement.It led to such conclusions as the following: "The higher achievement of all racial andethnic groups in schools with greater proportions of white students is largely, perhaps wholly,related to effects associated with the student body's educational background and aspirations"(p. 307); this is a standard structural effects proposition. EEO also contained analyses thatrelated school facilities and curriculum (e.g., labs, accelerated curriculum, guidance facilities,teacher characteristics, grouping and tracking; and school size—aggregated or global schoolproperties) to individual achievement. What happens in schools and what mechanisms operateso that such properties influence individual achievement? We don't know.Although the logic of EEO's (Coleman et al, 1966) analysis is clear, it contained noconceptualization and description of school organization and the schooling process beyondthe summation of plausible but ad hoc school characteristics. The contrast with Union Democracyis striking. In his studies of schools Coleman over time de-emphasized the substantivetreatment of work and its settings, of occupation, and of organizational structure thatcharacterized Union Democracy (and other organizational studies). This was anomalous inlight of his report on the major intellectual influences on him during his years at Columbia(Coleman, 1990a). In that account, he described how Lipset approached the difficulties ofcombining "macrosocial problems and sample survey techniques" (p. 95).Although quantitative analyses of the survey data can be found throughout the book and indeed arecentral to the study, it was the framework of ideas from social theory that generated theanalyses . . . [T]he initial ideas were richly developed, elaborated, and modified by the data (p. 95;Coleman's italics),gathered by observation and by interview, and gathered from historical materials and fromunion publications. Despite the positive sentiments he expressed in his retrospective essay, heproceeded to follow an approach to educational research that drew far more from Lazarsfeldthan from Lipset and others in the Columbia organizational tradition, as evidenced by his firstbook. The Adolescent Society (Coleman, 1961), later by EEO and subsequently by his studiesof the public and private educational sectors. The latter relied on evidence from large-scalecross-sectional and later longitudinal surveys whose formulation and design bore Lazarsfeld'sstamp; through them he became a major force in shaping how we look at schools and theireffects.The Adolescent Society (Coleman, 1961) employed survey methods to investigate 10secondary schools. The formulation of both adolescent society and of school was built on theconcept of "value climate" to explain patterns of individual behavior, with climate referringboth to a societal phenomenon, similar to Durkheim's notion of "current," and to its manifestationsin different schools. The book employed a conception of adolescence as a life-cyclestage where "the child of high-school age.. .is 'cut off from the rest of society, forced inwardtoward his own age group, made to carry out his whole social life with others his ownage . . . [and] maintains only a few threads of connection with the outside adult society" (p. 3).The value climate of schools was the main organizing principle, but whether it was themain force at work is an open question (Coleman, 1961). The chapter "Scholastic Effects ofthe Social System," for example, presented a familiar kind of contextual analysis: within schools,Coleman showed relations between the education of students' parents and academic outcomes(e.g., hours per day studying, intention to go to college). Identifying the source of variation in116 Robert Dreebenoutcomes is difficult, however; although the text attributed it sometimes to the value (or social)climate of the schools, one cannot distinguish this influence from the variety of otherschool characteristics identified (but not treated systematically) or from the societal notion ofadolescent culture. Though he gathered information about the schools, he treated them asinternally undifferentiated and thereby put mechanisms linking adolescent culture to outcomesout of reach. (Note that although he presented sociograms that differed by school, these figuredin identifying different kinds of adolescent subgroupings, not in explaining scholasticeffects.) This study, along with Wilson's (1959) article, solidified the concept of the schoolvalue climate as a conventional assumption in subsequent work on school effects.EEO (Coleman et al., 1966) took an additional step away from organizational analysis,bolstered by the advent of high-speed computers that handled multivariate regression withhuge samples of participants and many variables. This capacity allowed the use of large-scalesurveys for their obvious advantages, while reducing the likelihood of considering aspects ofschool organization and functioning not readily revealed by such methods. It would be wrongto argue, however, that EEO took no substantive position on school organization. That position,however, could only be inferred from the actual variables employed to describe schoolcharacteristics because EEO lacked explicit substantive arguments about social structure, theschooling process, and how work is organized and carried out. Yet, no one else at that time haddeveloped persuasive formulations of these matters with respect to schools and to schoolingeven though this sort of conceptualizing had occurred in other fields, most notably in studiesof industry, of government, of hospitals, of voluntary associations (political parties and unions),and of the military.EEO's (Coleman et al., 1966) influence on the subsequent agenda of the sociology ofeducation has been colossal. It became a prototype (with variations) for later investigationsrooted more in the Lazarsfeld than in the Merton style, exploiting the advantages of surveydesign and analysis more than the substantive investigation of school organization and ofschooling. It stimulated the employment of large surveys to study educational effects, solidifiedthe use of structural (contextual) effects designs, and introduced school properties otherthan normative climate into the analysis of school effects. Yet it provided little direct stimulationto the analysis of school structure, educational work, and the schooling process—to theissues that the substantive tradition at Columbia might have inspired in studies of education,but did not.FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS: PRO AND CONEEO (Coleman et al., 1966) was not the sole influence on future approaches to educationaleffects; other investigations pursued parallel interests employing similar formulations. Michael(1961), analyzing evidence from a national study, aimed to discover whether family status orability was a better predictor of college attendance depending on the social-class climate ofthe school, with individual family status held constant. This work recast earlier studies byKahl (1953) and by Sewell and colleagues (1957) into a structural effects framework, but itdid so by conflating a variety of other school characteristics (e.g., percent seniors enrolled incollege curriculum, size of community library, seniors whose best friend plans college, etc.)with class-based school climate. Michael (1961) expressed his argument in a predictive frameworkand demonstrated conditional relations among ability, family status, school climate, andcollege plans—as anticipated. Even though this study was not designed to explore the meaningof climate or to discover how it fit into some causal process, it inadvertently anticipated
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Efek struktural dalam Pendidikan 115
EEO ini (Coleman et al., 1966) konsepsi organisasi sekolah dapat dibaca dari Bagian
3.2, "Hubungan Faktor Sekolah Prestasi" (hlm. 290-325). Analisis yang meliputi
karakteristik sekolah agregat (misalnya, rata-rata tingkat pendidikan guru, komposisi rasial),
karakteristik individu dikendalikan secara statistik (misalnya, latar belakang sosial, ras / etnis), dan
sifat sekolah (misalnya, fasilitas dan kurikulum) untuk menilai dampaknya terhadap prestasi individu .
Ini menyebabkan kesimpulan seperti berikut: "Pencapaian yang lebih tinggi dari semua ras dan
kelompok etnis di sekolah dengan proporsi yang lebih besar dari siswa putih sebagian besar, mungkin sepenuhnya,
terkait dengan efek yang berkaitan dengan latar belakang pendidikan dan aspirasi mahasiswa tubuh "
(hal. 307); ini adalah standar efek struktural proposisi. EEO juga berisi analisis yang
terkait fasilitas sekolah dan kurikulum (misalnya, laboratorium, kurikulum dipercepat, fasilitas bimbingan,
karakteristik guru, pengelompokan dan pelacakan, dan sekolah-ukuran agregat atau sekolah global yang
sifat) untuk prestasi individu. Apa yang terjadi di sekolah dan apa mekanisme beroperasi
sehingga sifat tersebut mempengaruhi prestasi individu? Kita tidak tahu.
Meskipun logika (Coleman et al, 1966) analisis EEO adalah jelas, itu tidak berisi
konseptualisasi dan deskripsi organisasi sekolah dan proses pendidikan di luar
penjumlahan dari masuk akal tetapi hoc karakteristik sekolah iklan. Kontras dengan Uni Demokrasi
adalah mencolok. Dalam studinya sekolah Coleman dari waktu ke waktu de-menekankan substantif
pengobatan kerja dan pengaturannya, pendudukan, dan struktur organisasi yang
dicirikan Uni Demokrasi (dan studi organisasi lainnya). Ini adalah anomali
terang laporannya pada pengaruh intelektual besar pada dirinya selama bertahun-tahun di Columbia
(Coleman, 1990a). Dalam akun itu, ia menggambarkan bagaimana Lipset mendekati kesulitan
menggabungkan "masalah macrosocial dan teknik survei sampel" (hal. 95).
Meskipun analisis kuantitatif dari data survei dapat ditemukan di seluruh buku ini dan memang sangat
penting bagi penelitian, itu kerangka ide dari teori sosial yang dihasilkan
analisis. . . [T] dia ide awal yang kaya dikembangkan, diuraikan, dan dimodifikasi oleh data (p 95;.
miring Coleman),
yang dikumpulkan oleh observasi dan wawancara, dan dikumpulkan dari bahan sejarah dan dari
publikasi serikat. Meskipun sentimen positif yang dinyatakan dalam esai retrospektif, ia
melanjutkan untuk mengikuti pendekatan penelitian pendidikan yang menarik jauh lebih dari Lazarsfeld
dari dari Lipset dan lain-lain dalam tradisi organisasi Columbia, sebagaimana dibuktikan oleh pertama
buku. The Remaja Masyarakat (Coleman, 1961), kemudian oleh EEO dan kemudian oleh studi
dari sektor pendidikan publik dan swasta. Yang terakhir ini mengandalkan bukti dari skala besar
survei cross-sectional dan kemudian memanjang yang formulasi dan desain membosankan Lazarsfeld di
cap; melalui mereka ia menjadi kekuatan utama dalam membentuk bagaimana kita melihat sekolah dan mereka
efek.
Remaja Masyarakat (Coleman, 1961) menggunakan metode-metode survei untuk menyelidiki 10
sekolah menengah. Perumusan baik masyarakat remaja dan sekolah dibangun di
konsep "iklim nilai" untuk menjelaskan pola-pola perilaku individu, dengan iklim mengacu
baik untuk fenomena sosial, mirip dengan pengertian Durkheim dari "saat ini," dan manifestasinya
dalam berbagai sekolah. Buku ini menggunakan konsepsi remaja sebagai siklus hidup
tahap di mana "anak usia sekolah menengah .. .is 'terputus dari seluruh masyarakat, dipaksa ke dalam
menuju kelompok usia sendiri, dibuat untuk melaksanakan nya keseluruhan sosial hidup dengan orang lain sendiri
usia... [dan] mempertahankan hanya beberapa benang koneksi dengan masyarakat dewasa luar "(hal. 3).
Iklim nilai sekolah adalah prinsip pengorganisasian utama, tapi apakah itu
kekuatan utama di kerja adalah pertanyaan terbuka (Coleman, 1961). Bab "Scholastic Efek
Sistem Sosial, "misalnya, disajikan semacam akrab analisis kontekstual: di sekolah-sekolah,
Coleman menunjukkan hubungan antara pendidikan orang tua siswa dan hasil akademik
(misalnya, jam per hari belajar, niat untuk pergi ke perguruan tinggi). Mengidentifikasi sumber variasi dalam 116 Robert Dreeben hasil-hasil yang sulit, namun; meskipun teks dikaitkan kadang-kadang dengan nilai (atau sosial) iklim sekolah, orang tidak dapat membedakan pengaruh ini dari berbagai lain karakteristik sekolah diidentifikasi (tapi tidak diperlakukan secara sistematis) atau dari gagasan sosial dari budaya remaja. Meskipun ia mengumpulkan informasi tentang sekolah, ia memperlakukan mereka sebagai internal dibeda-bedakan dan dengan demikian menempatkan mekanisme yang menghubungkan budaya remaja dengan hasil luar jangkauan. (Perhatikan bahwa meskipun ia disajikan sociograms yang berbeda dengan sekolah, ini pikir dalam mengidentifikasi berbagai jenis sub kelompok remaja, tidak menjelaskan skolastik efek.) Penelitian ini, bersama dengan (1959) pasal Wilson, mengukuhkan konsep sekolah iklim nilai sebagai asumsi konvensional dalam pekerjaan berikutnya tentang efek sekolah. EEO (Coleman et al., 1966) mengambil langkah tambahan dari analisis organisasi, didukung oleh munculnya komputer berkecepatan tinggi yang ditangani regresi multivariat dengan sampel besar peserta dan banyak variabel. Kapasitas ini memungkinkan penggunaan skala besar survei untuk keuntungan jelas mereka, sekaligus mengurangi kemungkinan mempertimbangkan aspek organisasi sekolah dan berfungsi tidak mudah diungkapkan oleh metode tersebut. Ini akan salah untuk berdebat, bagaimanapun, bahwa EEO tidak mengambil posisi substantif terhadap organisasi sekolah. Posisi itu, bagaimanapun, hanya dapat disimpulkan dari variabel yang sebenarnya digunakan untuk menggambarkan sekolah karakteristik karena EEO tidak memiliki argumen substantif eksplisit tentang struktur sosial, proses pendidikan, dan bagaimana pekerjaan diatur dan dilaksanakan. Namun, tidak ada orang lain pada waktu itu telah mengembangkan formulasi persuasif hal ini sehubungan dengan sekolah-sekolah dan sekolah meskipun semacam ini konseptualisasi terjadi di bidang lain, terutama dalam studi industri, pemerintah, rumah sakit, asosiasi sukarela (partai politik dan serikat), dan militer. EEO ini (Coleman et al., 1966) pengaruh pada agenda selanjutnya dari sosiologi pendidikan telah kolosal. Ini menjadi prototipe (dengan variasi) untuk penyelidikan kemudian berakar lebih dalam Lazarsfeld dibandingkan dengan gaya Merton, memanfaatkan keuntungan dari survei desain dan analisis lebih dari penyelidikan substantif organisasi sekolah dan sekolah. Ini merangsang kerja survei besar untuk mempelajari efek pendidikan, mengukuhkan penggunaan struktural (kontekstual) efek desain, dan memperkenalkan properti sekolah lainnya selain iklim normatif dalam analisis dampak sekolah. Namun itu memberikan stimulasi langsung sedikit analisis struktur sekolah, pekerjaan pendidikan, dan sekolah-proses ke isu-isu yang substantif tradisi di Columbia mungkin terinspirasi dalam studi pendidikan, tapi tidak. PERKEMBANGAN LANJUT: PRO DAN CON EEO ( . Coleman et al, 1966) adalah bukan satu-satunya pengaruh pada pendekatan masa depan untuk pendidikan efek; investigasi lainnya mengejar kepentingan paralel menggunakan formulasi yang sama. Michael (1961), menganalisis bukti dari studi nasional, bertujuan untuk mengetahui apakah status keluarga atau kemampuan adalah prediktor yang lebih baik kehadiran perguruan tinggi tergantung pada iklim kelas sosial sekolah, dengan status keluarga individu konstan. Karya ini menyusun kembali studi sebelumnya oleh Kahl (1953) dan oleh Sewell dan rekan (1957) ke dalam kerangka efek struktural, tetapi melakukannya dengan conflating berbagai karakteristik sekolah lainnya (misalnya, persen senior terdaftar di kurikulum perguruan tinggi, ukuran perpustakaan masyarakat , senior yang sahabat rencana kuliah, dll) dengan iklim sekolah berbasis kelas. Michael (1961) menyatakan argumennya dalam kerangka prediksi dan menunjukkan hubungan bersyarat antara kemampuan, status keluarga, iklim sekolah, dan rencana-sebagai perguruan diantisipasi. Meskipun penelitian ini tidak dirancang untuk mengeksplorasi makna iklim atau untuk menemukan cara masuk ke dalam beberapa proses kausal, itu sengaja diantisipasi



















































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