In July 1985, the People's Republic of China took an important first s terjemahan - In July 1985, the People's Republic of China took an important first s Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

In July 1985, the People's Republic

In July 1985, the People's Republic of China took an important first step towards promoting greater efficiency in irrigation water usage. The Chinese government instituted agricultural policy reforms which invested a greater degree of financial and managerial autonomy in provincial water management agencies. The policy emphasized “water as a commodity rather than a gift of nature and clearly attributed wasteful consumption and the imbalance between supply and demand to irrationally low water charges” (SOURCE). As a result, irrigation water is priced more closely to what it actually costs, and problems associated with overuse and inefficient distribution have diminished. Irrigation service fees are charged at levels to cover operation, maintenance, and amortization of capital costs. Beginning in 1980 the government switched from financing systems with grants to providing loans. The move provided an extra incentive for water management agencies to collect higher water fees. In general, water charges are determined by what the water actually costs for different uses. For example, charges may vary according to season, and in very dry areas progressive water pricing schemes have been adopted to reflect scarcity.
In Hungxian County, for example, farmers reported a more reliable water supply and were willing to pay more for the guaranteed supply. Management is often further decentralized when a local agency purchases water wholesale and sells it in bulk to smaller water user associations responsible for distribution to farmers. These smaller groups strengthen the bond between the water-user and the supplier who must recover costs. Farmers have begun to irrigate their crops more efficiently, and water use per hectare has declined. Decentralized management has led to more efficient distribution through practices such as distributing water according to land area, levying water charges on a volumetric basis rather than charging a flat rate, and preparing distribution plans in advance. Crop production has improved, with China producing twice as much as similarly irrigated crops in India. Chile has both a system of tradeable water rights and a full-cost pricing policy towards water (Hartje et. al., 1994). Like most other countries in the world, Chile considers water as a national resource, yet individuals are granted perpetual, irreversible, and freely tradeable water use rights independent of land ownership and use. Water use rights are defined for a fixed quantity per unit of time and are awarded following application by a potential user. The General Director of Water (DGA) grants the water right provided that (a) the new water right does not impair existing rights and (b) the ecological
requirement of minimum flow has not yet been reached by previous right allocations. Water use rights are granted free of charge and recorded in a national register; the granting authority reserves the right to restrict water consumption in times of water shortage.
Downstream owners of water rights have a right to a percentage share of the river flow but no
protection against reductions of downstream flows due to increases in upstream use. While owners of consumptive rights (e.g., irrigation) have no specified obligation with regard to quality or quantity of return flows, owners of non-consumptive rights (e.g., hydropower and recreation) are required to return the same quantity and quality of water. The distribution of water according to existing property rights is organized by water users' associations under the control of DGA. The water users'associations are also responsible for maintaining the irrigation infrastructure.
Water rights are freely tradeable and the market for water rights is quite active. Seasonal water rentals are particularly frequent within the agricultural sector. Farmers also sell or lease water rights to water supply utilities who often find such purchases a significantly less costly source than the development of new sources of supply for urban and industrial use. Individual negotiations determine the price of each transaction.
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Pada Juli tahun 1985, Republik Rakyat Cina mengambil suatu langkah penting pertama menuju mempromosikan efisiensi yang lebih besar dalam penggunaan air irigasi. Pemerintah Cina telah menetapkan reformasi kebijakan pertanian yang diinvestasikan tingkat keuangan dan manajerial otonomi di Provinsi air penanggulangan yang lebih besar. Kebijakan menekankan "air sebagai komoditas daripada hadiah alam dan jelas dikaitkan boros konsumsi dan ketidakseimbangan antara permintaan dan tidak rasional air rendah biaya" (sumber). Sebagai hasilnya, air irigasi harganya lebih dekat untuk apa yang benar-benar biaya, dan masalah yang terkait dengan penggunaan berlebihan dan tidak efisien distribusi telah berkurang. Irigasi biaya Jasa ditagih pada tingkat untuk menutupi operasi, pemeliharaan, dan amortisasi biaya modal. Awal tahun 1980 pemerintah beralih dari pembiayaan sistem dengan hibah untuk memberikan pinjaman. Pindahkan diberikan insentif tambahan untuk air lembaga manajemen untuk mengumpulkan biaya air yang lebih tinggi. Pada umumnya, biaya air ditentukan oleh apa air biaya sebenarnya untuk kegunaan yang berbeda. Sebagai contoh, biaya dapat bervariasi menurut musim, dan di daerah yang sangat kering air progresif harga skema telah diadopsi untuk mencerminkan kelangkaan. Di Hungxian County, misalnya, petani dilaporkan lebih handal pasokan air dan bersedia membayar lebih untuk persediaan dijamin. Manajemen sering lebih lanjut desentralisasi ketika agen lokal pembelian air grosir dan menjualnya di massal untuk kecil air pengguna Asosiasi bertanggung jawab untuk distribusi kepada petani. Kelompok-kelompok kecil ini memperkuat ikatan antara air-pengguna dan pemasok yang harus memulihkan biaya. Petani telah mulai untuk mengairi tanaman mereka lebih efisien, dan menggunakan air per hektar telah menurun. Desentralisasi telah menyebabkan lebih efisien distribusi melalui praktek mendistribusikan air sesuai lahan, pengadaan air biaya secara Volumetrik daripada pengisian flat rate dan menyiapkan rencana distribusi terlebih dahulu. Produksi tanaman telah membaik, dengan Cina yang memproduksi dua kali sebanyak demikian pula irigasi tanaman di India. Chili memiliki sistem tradeable hak air dan kebijakan harga biaya penuh terhadap air (Hartje et.Al, 1994). Seperti kebanyakan negara lain di dunia, Chili menganggap air sebagai sumber daya nasional, namun individu diberikan abadi, ireversibel, dan bebas tradeable air menggunakan hak-hak yang independen kepemilikan tanah dan menggunakan. Hak penggunaan air ditentukan untuk sebuah kuantitas yang pasti per unit waktu dan diberikan setelah aplikasi oleh pengguna potensial. Direktur Jenderal dari air (tetap) hibah hak air asalkan () hak air baru tidak mengurangi hak-hak yang ada dan (b) ekologipersyaratan minimum aliran belum telah mencapai oleh sebelumnya alokasi yang tepat. Air menggunakan hak yang diberikan secara gratis dan tercatat dalam daftar Nasional; kewenangan memberikan cadangan hak untuk membatasi konsumsi air pada saat kekurangan air. Hilir pemilik hak air memiliki hak untuk persentase saham aliran sungai tetapi tidakperlindungan terhadap pengurangan arus hilir karena meningkatkan hulu digunakan. Sementara pemilik hak konsumtif (misalnya, irigasi) memiliki kewajiban tidak ditentukan kualitas atau kuantitas mengalir kembali, pemilik hak non-konsumtif (misalnya, pembangkit listrik tenaga air dan rekreasi) diharuskan kembali kuantitas dan kualitas air yang sama. Distribusi air sesuai yang ada hak milik yang diselenggarakan oleh Asosiasi pengguna air di bawah kendali tetap. Users'associations air juga bertanggung jawab untuk menjaga infrastruktur irigasi.Hak-hak air bebas tradeable dan pasar untuk hak-hak air cukup aktif. Penyewaan musiman air juga sangat sering dalam sektor pertanian. Petani juga menjual atau menyewakan air hak untuk pasokan air utilitas yang sering menemukan pembelian tersebut sumber secara signifikan lebih murah daripada pengembangan sumber-sumber baru pasokan untuk penggunaan perkotaan dan industri. Negosiasi individu menentukan harga untuk setiap transaksi.
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Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 2:[Salinan]
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In July 1985, the People's Republic of China took an important first step towards promoting greater efficiency in irrigation water usage. The Chinese government instituted agricultural policy reforms which invested a greater degree of financial and managerial autonomy in provincial water management agencies. The policy emphasized “water as a commodity rather than a gift of nature and clearly attributed wasteful consumption and the imbalance between supply and demand to irrationally low water charges” (SOURCE). As a result, irrigation water is priced more closely to what it actually costs, and problems associated with overuse and inefficient distribution have diminished. Irrigation service fees are charged at levels to cover operation, maintenance, and amortization of capital costs. Beginning in 1980 the government switched from financing systems with grants to providing loans. The move provided an extra incentive for water management agencies to collect higher water fees. In general, water charges are determined by what the water actually costs for different uses. For example, charges may vary according to season, and in very dry areas progressive water pricing schemes have been adopted to reflect scarcity.
In Hungxian County, for example, farmers reported a more reliable water supply and were willing to pay more for the guaranteed supply. Management is often further decentralized when a local agency purchases water wholesale and sells it in bulk to smaller water user associations responsible for distribution to farmers. These smaller groups strengthen the bond between the water-user and the supplier who must recover costs. Farmers have begun to irrigate their crops more efficiently, and water use per hectare has declined. Decentralized management has led to more efficient distribution through practices such as distributing water according to land area, levying water charges on a volumetric basis rather than charging a flat rate, and preparing distribution plans in advance. Crop production has improved, with China producing twice as much as similarly irrigated crops in India. Chile has both a system of tradeable water rights and a full-cost pricing policy towards water (Hartje et. al., 1994). Like most other countries in the world, Chile considers water as a national resource, yet individuals are granted perpetual, irreversible, and freely tradeable water use rights independent of land ownership and use. Water use rights are defined for a fixed quantity per unit of time and are awarded following application by a potential user. The General Director of Water (DGA) grants the water right provided that (a) the new water right does not impair existing rights and (b) the ecological
requirement of minimum flow has not yet been reached by previous right allocations. Water use rights are granted free of charge and recorded in a national register; the granting authority reserves the right to restrict water consumption in times of water shortage.
Downstream owners of water rights have a right to a percentage share of the river flow but no
protection against reductions of downstream flows due to increases in upstream use. While owners of consumptive rights (e.g., irrigation) have no specified obligation with regard to quality or quantity of return flows, owners of non-consumptive rights (e.g., hydropower and recreation) are required to return the same quantity and quality of water. The distribution of water according to existing property rights is organized by water users' associations under the control of DGA. The water users'associations are also responsible for maintaining the irrigation infrastructure.
Water rights are freely tradeable and the market for water rights is quite active. Seasonal water rentals are particularly frequent within the agricultural sector. Farmers also sell or lease water rights to water supply utilities who often find such purchases a significantly less costly source than the development of new sources of supply for urban and industrial use. Individual negotiations determine the price of each transaction.
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