about 0.8, and thus that the elasticity of corporate income taxes to N terjemahan - about 0.8, and thus that the elasticity of corporate income taxes to N Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

about 0.8, and thus that the elasti

about 0.8, and thus that the elasticity of corporate income taxes to NIPA corporate profits
is 0.8.
For federal grants, we cyclically adjust Medicaid and AFDC grants using the
procedure described below for Medicaid expenditures. For other grants, including
TANF, there is no cyclical sensitivity because, in general, their levels are set through
discretionary appropriations and not automatically affected by changes in economic
activity. For miscellaneous taxes and fees, we estimate that the elasticity is 0.45.
On the expenditure side, we draw upon on Blank’s (2001) analysis of welfare
caseloads to estimate the cyclical sensitivity of Medicaid expenditures; thus, we model
the cyclical portion of spending as a function of past changes in the unemployment rate.6
We use the NIPA data to generate cyclical sensitivities for all other transfer programs,
but the estimated elasticities are small. Apart from transfers, we assume that the cyclical
sensitivity of spending—principally on goods and services—is zero: Although
governments may adjust spending in areas like education in response to changes in
economic conditions, these adjustments are discretionary and thus do not qualify as the
sort of automatic responses that are captured in our cyclical adjustment.
Combining our estimates of the cyclical response of revenues and expenditures,
we find that each 1 percent drop in GDP reduces NIPA net saving by about 0.1 percent of
GDP—equal to $13 billion in today’s economy.7 Of the $13 billon hit to net saving,
$11½ billion comes from lower taxes and $1½ billion comes from higher outlays for
Medicaid (net of increased federal grants) and other transfer payments. Most of the
impact is on state governments because they rely heavily on cyclically sensitive income
and sales taxes whereas local governments rely mainly on property taxes and grants from
the states. Although states may transfer some of the “pain” to local governments by
reducing grants, these are policy actions—not automatic responses.
6 According to Blank’s results, a 1 percentage point increase in the unemployment rate leads to a 3½
percent increase in welfare caseloads over eighteen months, which declines to about a 2 percent increase
after three years. In addition to welfare recipients, Medicaid covers the disabled and the poor elderly;
participation by these groups is not cyclical.
7 Two alternative formulations of this rule-of-thumb are as follows. First, net saving falls by 0.2 percent of
GDP for each 1 percentage point increase in the unemployment rate. Second, if governments wish to
maintain their prior net saving positions in the face of the weaker economy, they must raise own-source
revenues by 1 percent, cut current expenditures a comparable amount (in dollar terms), or undertake a
combination of the two.
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Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 1: [Salinan]
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about 0.8, and thus that the elasticity of corporate income taxes to NIPA corporate profitsis 0.8.For federal grants, we cyclically adjust Medicaid and AFDC grants using theprocedure described below for Medicaid expenditures. For other grants, includingTANF, there is no cyclical sensitivity because, in general, their levels are set throughdiscretionary appropriations and not automatically affected by changes in economicactivity. For miscellaneous taxes and fees, we estimate that the elasticity is 0.45.On the expenditure side, we draw upon on Blank’s (2001) analysis of welfarecaseloads to estimate the cyclical sensitivity of Medicaid expenditures; thus, we modelthe cyclical portion of spending as a function of past changes in the unemployment rate.6We use the NIPA data to generate cyclical sensitivities for all other transfer programs,but the estimated elasticities are small. Apart from transfers, we assume that the cyclicalsensitivity of spending—principally on goods and services—is zero: Althoughgovernments may adjust spending in areas like education in response to changes ineconomic conditions, these adjustments are discretionary and thus do not qualify as thesort of automatic responses that are captured in our cyclical adjustment.Combining our estimates of the cyclical response of revenues and expenditures,we find that each 1 percent drop in GDP reduces NIPA net saving by about 0.1 percent ofGDP—equal to $13 billion in today’s economy.7 Of the $13 billon hit to net saving,$11½ billion comes from lower taxes and $1½ billion comes from higher outlays forMedicaid (net of increased federal grants) and other transfer payments. Most of theimpact is on state governments because they rely heavily on cyclically sensitive incomeand sales taxes whereas local governments rely mainly on property taxes and grants fromthe states. Although states may transfer some of the “pain” to local governments byreducing grants, these are policy actions—not automatic responses.6 According to Blank’s results, a 1 percentage point increase in the unemployment rate leads to a 3½percent increase in welfare caseloads over eighteen months, which declines to about a 2 percent increaseafter three years. In addition to welfare recipients, Medicaid covers the disabled and the poor elderly;participation by these groups is not cyclical.7 Two alternative formulations of this rule-of-thumb are as follows. First, net saving falls by 0.2 percent ofGDP for each 1 percentage point increase in the unemployment rate. Second, if governments wish tomaintain their prior net saving positions in the face of the weaker economy, they must raise own-sourcerevenues by 1 percent, cut current expenditures a comparable amount (in dollar terms), or undertake acombination of the two.
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sekitar 0,8, dan dengan demikian bahwa elastisitas pajak penghasilan badan untuk keuntungan perusahaan LAN
adalah 0,8.
Untuk hibah federal, kami siklis menyesuaikan Medicaid dan AFDC hibah menggunakan
prosedur yang diuraikan di bawah ini untuk Medicaid pengeluaran. Untuk hibah lainnya, termasuk
TANF, tidak ada sensitivitas siklus karena pada umumnya, tingkat mereka ditetapkan melalui
alokasi diskresi dan tidak secara otomatis dipengaruhi oleh perubahan ekonomi
aktivitas. Untuk pajak lain-lain dan biaya, kami memperkirakan bahwa elastisitas adalah 0,45.
Di sisi pengeluaran, kita memanfaatkan di (2001) analisis Blank kesejahteraan
beban kasus untuk memperkirakan sensitivitas siklus Medicaid pengeluaran; dengan demikian, kita model
bagian siklus pengeluaran sebagai fungsi dari perubahan masa lalu dalam rate.6 pengangguran
Kami menggunakan data LAN untuk menghasilkan sensitivitas siklus untuk semua program transfer lain,
tetapi elastisitas diperkirakan kecil. Selain transfer, kita mengasumsikan bahwa siklus
sensitivitas pengeluaran-terutama pada barang dan jasa-adalah nol: Meskipun
pemerintah dapat menyesuaikan belanja di daerah seperti pendidikan dalam menanggapi perubahan
kondisi ekonomi, penyesuaian ini diskresioner dan dengan demikian tidak memenuhi syarat sebagai
semacam respons otomatis yang ditangkap dalam penyesuaian siklus kami.
Menggabungkan perkiraan kami respon siklus pendapatan dan pengeluaran,
kita menemukan bahwa setiap penurunan 1 persen PDB mengurangi tabungan bersih LAN sekitar 0,1 persen dari
PDB-sama dengan $ 13 miliar pada hari ini economy.7 Dari hit $ 13 miliar untuk penghematan bersih,
$ 11 ½ miliar berasal dari pajak yang lebih rendah dan $ 1 ½ miliar berasal dari pengeluaran yang lebih tinggi untuk
Medicaid (bersih hibah federal meningkat) dan pembayaran transfer lain. Sebagian besar
dampaknya pada pemerintah negara bagian karena mereka sangat bergantung pada pendapatan siklis sensitif
dan pajak penjualan sedangkan pemerintah daerah mengandalkan terutama pada pajak properti dan hibah dari
negara. Meskipun negara-negara dapat mentransfer beberapa "rasa sakit" kepada pemerintah daerah dengan
mengurangi hibah, ini adalah tindakan-bukan kebijakan respon otomatis.
6 Menurut hasil Blank, kenaikan angka 1 persen dalam tingkat pengangguran menyebabkan 3 ½
persen peningkatan dalam beban kasus kesejahteraan lebih dari delapan belas bulan, yang menurun menjadi sekitar peningkatan 2 persen
setelah tiga tahun. Selain penerima kesejahteraan, Medicaid mencakup cacat dan orang miskin tua,
partisipasi kelompok-kelompok ini tidak siklus.
7 Dua formulasi alternatif ini aturan-of-thumb adalah sebagai berikut. Pertama, penghematan bersih turun sebesar 0,2 persen dari
PDB untuk setiap kenaikan 1 poin persentase dalam tingkat pengangguran. Kedua, jika pemerintah ingin
mempertahankan posisi penghematan bersih mereka sebelumnya dalam menghadapi ekonomi lemah, mereka harus meningkatkan sendiri-sumber
pendapatan sebesar 1 persen, memotong pengeluaran saat jumlah yang sebanding (dalam dolar), atau melakukan
kombinasi dari dua .
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