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10.4.3 INTERACTIONS OFAMYLOPECTIN ANDAMYLOSEIn a study in which retrogradation of gels from nongranular mixtures withdifferent amylose/amylopectin ratios were studied, synergistic interactionswere seen between amylopectin and amylose at a high amylose content [160].Because the melting endotherm, as measured by the DSC method, has beenattributed to the recrystallization of the amylopectin fraction, one could expectthat the melting endotherm is proportional to the amount of amylopectin.Gudmundsson and Eliasson [160], however, found unexpectedly high valuesfor the melting enthalpy of gels with very high amylose content (75 to 90%).The possibility of limited cocrystallization has been proposed in relation toretrogradation [161]. Such cocrystallization could be promoted when amyloseis found in high amounts. Schierbaum et al. [162] have found that linearsegments of amylopectin and amylose, or limit dextrins of certain criticallengths, can interact in solution. Similar findings were reported by Seivert andWürsch [159] in a study of the chain association of amylose and the effect ofamylopectin on that process in mixtures with different ratios of amylose to© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCStarch: Physicochemical and Functional Aspects 419amylopectin. They found that an increasing amount of amylopectin restrictedthe chain association of amylose, and the authors attributed this finding toeither dilution or steric hindrance effects; however, the amylose and amylopectin in aqueous solution have been shown to be immiscible at moderate concentrations, and that encourages phase separation of the polymers [56]. Undermost circumstances, the interactions of amylose and amylopectin should belimited in normal starch gels, as amylose is preferably leached out of thegranules, whereas the amylopectin is mainly retained within the granules.10.4.4 STORAGETEMPERATURE ANDWATERCONTENTRetrogradation is greatly affected by storage temperature. Storage of starchgels with 45 to 50% water content at low temperatures but above the glasstransition temperature (Tg= –5.0°C) increases the retrogradation compared tostorage at room temperature, especially during the first days of storage. Storageat freezing temperatures below the Tgvirtually inhibits recrystallization[91,134]. Higher temperatures (above 32 to 40°C) effectively reduce retrogradation [134]. The Avrami equation has been frequently used to account forthe kinetics of the recrytallization process at different temperatures and watercontents [134,135,137]; however, the analysis of retrogradation kineticsaccording to the Avrami equation requires thermodynamic equilibrium conditions, but that is not the case here and the method therefore has limitedapplicability. Retrogradation is a nonequilibrium recrystallization process, asindicated by the fact that at low temperatures (4 to 5°C) the crystallites formedare less nearly perfect (i.e., they have lower melting temperature Tc) thancrystallites formed at higher storage temperatures [163,164]. A three-stepmechanism of initial nucleation (junction point of two or more starch molecules) followed by crystal growth and propagation and then crystal perfectionhas been proposed [6].Crystallization that follows such a mechanism is nucleation controlled(i.e., the nucleation has to take place before the propagation can begin). Withinthe range Tgto Tc(e.g., –5.0 to 60°C for a gel with 50% water), both nucleationand propagation exhibit an exponential dependence on temperature, such thatnucleation rate increases with decreasing temperature, down to the Tg, whilethe propagation rate increases with increasing temperature, up to the Tc[6].This explains why crystallization occurs at low temperatures but only to alimited degree at elevated temperatures (>30°C), because nucleation formationis then retarded. For longer storage periods, the retrogradation should bemaximal at a temperature about midway between Tgand Tc, as both nucleationand propagation then take place at moderate rates. Both normal and waxystarches seem to follow this mechanism; the rate of retrogradation was foundto increase during a 48-hour period with decreasing temperature in the intervalof 1 to 25°C [165]. Amylose gels stored at 6°C did not develop a stalingendotherm during 48 hours of storage [165], indicating that crystallinity melted© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC420 Carbohydrates in Foodbelow 100°C is due to amylopectin. Results from NMR studies on the temperature dependence of retrogradation are consistent with these findings[151,166].Recrystallization of amylopectin is very sensitive to the water content instarch gels. A starch content in the range of 10 to 80% is necessary for thedevelopment of the DSC endotherm [137]. The maximum crystallization hasbeen measured at around 50% starch with DSC as well as with NMR [137,143,145,151].In contrast to a native starch suspensions, the gelatinized starch gel iscompletely amorphous and its water is uniformly distributed. The recrystallization process depends on the temperature difference between the storagetemperature and the Tgof the amorphous gel, as the mobility of the chainsdetermines their association rate. Because water is a plasticizer, it controls theTgof the amorphous gel. At a very low water content, the Tgis above roomtemperature, and the amorphous gel is in a highly viscous glassy state thateffectively hinders molecular mobility. Recrystallization increases with increasing water content until 45 to 50% water content is reached. Progressively moreeffective plasticization (increased molecular mobility) is obtained, and finallyTgis depressed below room temperature. Recrystallization then decreases witha further increase in water content up to 90%, apparently due to dilution of thecrystallizable component in the plasticized amorphous matrix [6].Due to their antiplasticizing effect, solutes (e.g., sugars) affect the retrogradation of starch gels compared to water alone [6]. They reduce the mobilityof the chains in the amorphous matrix by increasing the Tg. As a consequence,the rate of propagation can decline, decreasing the extent of retrogradation.10.4.5 BOTANICALSOURCEThe botanical source is of great importance for the retrogradation of starchgels [22,167–173]. This is true not only for starches with very different amylose content, but also for starches with similar amylose contents. Some of thedifferences among, for example, cereal starches can be attributed to differencesin the amylose/amylopectin ratio and lipid contents; however, these factorsaccount for only some of the differences. Structural differences found in theamylopectin molecule can explain some of the differences in the rate andextent of recrystallization.Some studies indicate that the rate, and sometimes the extent, of retrogradation increases with increasing amounts of amylose. Although the amylopectin is considered responsible for the long-term retrogradation, somewaxy starch types are reported to retrograde slowly, but pea and potatostarches with high amylose contents retrograde to a greater extent[151,174,175]. It is possible that the initial rate of retrogradation could beaccelerated because of synergistic interactions between amylopectin and amylose, as discussed earlier. Other studies have failed to show this relation of
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