International Assignee Selection and Cross-Cultural Training and Development
Paula Caligiuri
Rutgers University (USA) and Università Bocconi (Italy)
Ibraiz Tarique
Pace University (USA)
Multinational firms today compete on the effectiveness and competence of their core human talent around the world. Increasingly, these core individuals are being required to operate effectively across a variety of national borders and in a greater number of cross-national job assignments. These international assignees, including all employees working outside of their own national borders (e.g., parent country nationals, third country nationals, host country nationals), have collectively become vital for the success of multinational firms. These international assignees fill critical staffing needs in subsidiaries, manage key projects, transfer knowledge and corporate culture across geography, work on multinational teams, and perform many other critical tasks for their firms.
International assignments can be very challenging personally. While immersed in new cultural environments, international assignees are out of their own comfort zones and are susceptible to a variety of challenges such as the inability to speak the host national language, the inability to cope with the stress of culture shock, the inability to interact effectively with host nationals, and the like. Past research suggests that individuals who are not predisposed or prepared to confront these challenges may perform poorly, be maladjusted, etc.
Given the criticality of their roles and the associated challenges of living and working in another country, maximizing the cross-national effectiveness of international assignees has become an increasingly important function for researchers and human resources (HR) practitioners alike. From a strategic perspective, optimizing the effectiveness of international assignees – core talent for most multinational firms’ is a significant HR activity. Within an entire HR system, two specific functions which promote cross-cultural effectiveness among international assignees will be the focus of this chapter: (1) selection and (2) training and development. Other HR activities, such as compensation, performance management, and repatriation, will not be discussed in this chapter yet should be integrated into a comprehensive HR program for managing international assignees.
Within the selection and training functions, there are three major areas that have emerged in both the research and practice of managing international assignees. The first includes the individual-level antecedents of international assignee success, such as personality characteristics, language skills, and prior experience living in a different country. The second includes the process issues for effectively selecting global assignees, such as realistic previews, self-selection, and assessment. The third includes training and development issues for preparing international assignees to live and work in new cultural environments such as designing effective crosscultural training programs. This chapter will cover these important areas and offer some suggestions for future research.
Individual-level Antecedents of International Assignee Success
Personality Characteristics
Researchers have found that successful and well-adjusted international assignees tend to share certain personality traits (e.g., Black, 1990; Caligiuri, 2000a; 2000b; Church, 1982; Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985, Stening, 1979). Certain personality characteristics enable international assignees to be open and receptive to learning the norms of new cultures, to initiate contact with host nationals, to gather cultural information, and to handle the higher amounts of stress associated with the ambiguity of their new environments (Black, 1990; Church, 1982; Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985) – all important for international assignee success. While many personality characteristics exist, research has found that five factors provide a useful typology or taxonomy for classifying them (Digman, 1990; Goldberg, 1992, 1993; McCrae & Costa, 1987, 1989; McCrae & John, 1992). These five factors have been found repeatedly through factor analyses and confirmatory factor analyses across, time, contexts, and cultures (Buss, 1991; Digman, 1990; Goldberg, 1992, 1993; McCrae & Costa, 1987; McCrae & John, 1992) and are labeled "the Big Five." The Big Five personality factors are: (1) extroversion, (2) agreeableness, (3) conscientiousness, (4) emotional stability, and (5) openness or intellect. Each of the Big Five personality characteristics has some relationship to international assignee success (Ones & Viswesvaran, 1997; Caligiuri, 2000a; Caligiuri, 2000b).
Some personality characteristics predispose international assignees to form stronger social bonds, which can encourage a higher level of cross-cultural adjustment (Caligiuri, 2000a). International assignees who are able to assert themselves enough to establish some interpersonal relationships with both host nationals and other international assignees tend to be more likely to effectively learn the social culture of the host country (Abe & Wiseman, 1983; Black, 1990; Caligiuri, 2000a; Caligiuri, 2000b; Dinges, 1983; Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985; 1988; Searle & Ward, 1990), therefore, extroversion is important to help international assignees learn the work and non-work social culture in the host country relates to international assignee success. Agreeableness may also be important given that the ability to form reciprocal social alliances is achieved through this personality characteristic of (Buss, 1991). Expatriates who are more agreeable (i.e., deal with conflict collaboratively, strive for mutual understanding, and are less competitive) report greater cross-cultural adjustment -- and greater adjustment on the assignment (Caligiuri, 2000a; Caligiuri, 2000b; Ones & Viswesvaran, 1997; Black, 1990; Tung, 1981).
Other personality characteristics may also predispose international assignee for success. For example, trusted and conscientious employees are more likely to become leaders, gain status, get promoted, earn higher salaries, etc. In the domestic context, this has been supported through studies demonstrating a positive relationship between conscientiousness and work performance among professionals (e.g., Barrick & Mount, 1991; Day & Silverman, 1989). This finding has been generalized to international assignee performance (Caligiuri, 2000a; Ones & Viswesvaran, 1997) and has been found to be a predictor of those who will be effective in international assignments.
In addition to the three personality characteristics described above, emotional stability may also be important for international assignee success. Emotional stability is the universal adaptive mechanism enabling humans to cope with stress in their environment (Buss, 1991). Given that stress is often associated with living and working in an ambiguous and unfamiliar environment (Richards, 1996), emotional stability is an important personality characteristic for international assignees’ adjustment to the host country (Abe & Wiseman, 1983; Black, 1988; Gudykunst, 1988; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1984; Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985) and completion of an international assignee assignment (Ones & Viswesvaran, 1997).
Perhaps the most intuitively useful personality characteristic, as it relates to international assignee success, is the characteristic of openness or intellect. For an international assignee, the ability to correctly assess the social environment is more complicated given that the host country may provide ambiguous social cues (Caligiuri & Day, 2000). Successful international assignees will likely need to possess cognitive complexity, openness, and intuitive perceptual acuity to accurately perceive and interpret the host culture (Caligiuri, Jacobs, & Farr, 2000; Dinges, 1983; Finney & Von Glinow, 1987; Ones & Viswesvaran, 1997). Openness is related to international assignee success because individuals higher in this personality characteristic will have fewer rigid views of right and wrong, appropriate and inappropriate, etc. and are more likely to be accepting of the new culture (e.g., Abe & Wiseman, 1983; Black, 1990; Cui & Van den Berg, 1991; Hammer, Gudykunst, & Wiseman, 1978).
Collectively, these personality characteristics could be included in a valid selection system for prospective international assignees. It is important to note however, that the absolute level of each personality characteristic would be contingent upon the type of international assignment under consideration. For example, the necessary level of openness and extroversion would be much higher for an executive in a networking role than it would be for a technician working predominantly with a system or machine. A better understanding of the level of necessary characteristics for given international contexts would be useful focus for future research studies.
Language Skills
There is a logical consensus with regard to the positive relationship between language skills and international assignee adjustment (e.g., Abe & Wiseman, 1983; Church, 1982; Cui & Van den Berg, 1991). There is some disagreement, however, to the relative importance of language compared to other factors, such as personality characteristics (e.g., Benson, 1978; Cui & van den Berg, 1991; Dinges, 1983). The disagreement in the importance of language skills has its roots in whether interpersonal contact between people from different cultures leads to increased cultural understanding. Those who support contact theory believe that language skills, given that they are necessary for communication, are critical for cross-cultural adjustment. Others (e.g., Cui & Van den Berg, 1991) suggest that merely interacting with host nationals is not enough to produce cross-cultural adjustment. They suggest that cross-cultural adjustment only occurs when international assignees have the cultural em
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