International Assignee Selection and Cross-Cultural Training and Devel terjemahan - International Assignee Selection and Cross-Cultural Training and Devel Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

International Assignee Selection an

International Assignee Selection and Cross-Cultural Training and Development
Paula Caligiuri
Rutgers University (USA) and Università Bocconi (Italy)
Ibraiz Tarique
Pace University (USA)
Multinational firms today compete on the effectiveness and competence of their core human talent around the world. Increasingly, these core individuals are being required to operate effectively across a variety of national borders and in a greater number of cross-national job assignments. These international assignees, including all employees working outside of their own national borders (e.g., parent country nationals, third country nationals, host country nationals), have collectively become vital for the success of multinational firms. These international assignees fill critical staffing needs in subsidiaries, manage key projects, transfer knowledge and corporate culture across geography, work on multinational teams, and perform many other critical tasks for their firms.
International assignments can be very challenging personally. While immersed in new cultural environments, international assignees are out of their own comfort zones and are susceptible to a variety of challenges such as the inability to speak the host national language, the inability to cope with the stress of culture shock, the inability to interact effectively with host nationals, and the like. Past research suggests that individuals who are not predisposed or prepared to confront these challenges may perform poorly, be maladjusted, etc.
Given the criticality of their roles and the associated challenges of living and working in another country, maximizing the cross-national effectiveness of international assignees has become an increasingly important function for researchers and human resources (HR) practitioners alike. From a strategic perspective, optimizing the effectiveness of international assignees – core talent for most multinational firms’ is a significant HR activity. Within an entire HR system, two specific functions which promote cross-cultural effectiveness among international assignees will be the focus of this chapter: (1) selection and (2) training and development. Other HR activities, such as compensation, performance management, and repatriation, will not be discussed in this chapter yet should be integrated into a comprehensive HR program for managing international assignees.
Within the selection and training functions, there are three major areas that have emerged in both the research and practice of managing international assignees. The first includes the individual-level antecedents of international assignee success, such as personality characteristics, language skills, and prior experience living in a different country. The second includes the process issues for effectively selecting global assignees, such as realistic previews, self-selection, and assessment. The third includes training and development issues for preparing international assignees to live and work in new cultural environments such as designing effective crosscultural training programs. This chapter will cover these important areas and offer some suggestions for future research.

Individual-level Antecedents of International Assignee Success
Personality Characteristics
Researchers have found that successful and well-adjusted international assignees tend to share certain personality traits (e.g., Black, 1990; Caligiuri, 2000a; 2000b; Church, 1982; Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985, Stening, 1979). Certain personality characteristics enable international assignees to be open and receptive to learning the norms of new cultures, to initiate contact with host nationals, to gather cultural information, and to handle the higher amounts of stress associated with the ambiguity of their new environments (Black, 1990; Church, 1982; Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985) – all important for international assignee success. While many personality characteristics exist, research has found that five factors provide a useful typology or taxonomy for classifying them (Digman, 1990; Goldberg, 1992, 1993; McCrae & Costa, 1987, 1989; McCrae & John, 1992). These five factors have been found repeatedly through factor analyses and confirmatory factor analyses across, time, contexts, and cultures (Buss, 1991; Digman, 1990; Goldberg, 1992, 1993; McCrae & Costa, 1987; McCrae & John, 1992) and are labeled "the Big Five." The Big Five personality factors are: (1) extroversion, (2) agreeableness, (3) conscientiousness, (4) emotional stability, and (5) openness or intellect. Each of the Big Five personality characteristics has some relationship to international assignee success (Ones & Viswesvaran, 1997; Caligiuri, 2000a; Caligiuri, 2000b).
Some personality characteristics predispose international assignees to form stronger social bonds, which can encourage a higher level of cross-cultural adjustment (Caligiuri, 2000a). International assignees who are able to assert themselves enough to establish some interpersonal relationships with both host nationals and other international assignees tend to be more likely to effectively learn the social culture of the host country (Abe & Wiseman, 1983; Black, 1990; Caligiuri, 2000a; Caligiuri, 2000b; Dinges, 1983; Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985; 1988; Searle & Ward, 1990), therefore, extroversion is important to help international assignees learn the work and non-work social culture in the host country relates to international assignee success. Agreeableness may also be important given that the ability to form reciprocal social alliances is achieved through this personality characteristic of (Buss, 1991). Expatriates who are more agreeable (i.e., deal with conflict collaboratively, strive for mutual understanding, and are less competitive) report greater cross-cultural adjustment -- and greater adjustment on the assignment (Caligiuri, 2000a; Caligiuri, 2000b; Ones & Viswesvaran, 1997; Black, 1990; Tung, 1981).
Other personality characteristics may also predispose international assignee for success. For example, trusted and conscientious employees are more likely to become leaders, gain status, get promoted, earn higher salaries, etc. In the domestic context, this has been supported through studies demonstrating a positive relationship between conscientiousness and work performance among professionals (e.g., Barrick & Mount, 1991; Day & Silverman, 1989). This finding has been generalized to international assignee performance (Caligiuri, 2000a; Ones & Viswesvaran, 1997) and has been found to be a predictor of those who will be effective in international assignments.
In addition to the three personality characteristics described above, emotional stability may also be important for international assignee success. Emotional stability is the universal adaptive mechanism enabling humans to cope with stress in their environment (Buss, 1991). Given that stress is often associated with living and working in an ambiguous and unfamiliar environment (Richards, 1996), emotional stability is an important personality characteristic for international assignees’ adjustment to the host country (Abe & Wiseman, 1983; Black, 1988; Gudykunst, 1988; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1984; Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985) and completion of an international assignee assignment (Ones & Viswesvaran, 1997).
Perhaps the most intuitively useful personality characteristic, as it relates to international assignee success, is the characteristic of openness or intellect. For an international assignee, the ability to correctly assess the social environment is more complicated given that the host country may provide ambiguous social cues (Caligiuri & Day, 2000). Successful international assignees will likely need to possess cognitive complexity, openness, and intuitive perceptual acuity to accurately perceive and interpret the host culture (Caligiuri, Jacobs, & Farr, 2000; Dinges, 1983; Finney & Von Glinow, 1987; Ones & Viswesvaran, 1997). Openness is related to international assignee success because individuals higher in this personality characteristic will have fewer rigid views of right and wrong, appropriate and inappropriate, etc. and are more likely to be accepting of the new culture (e.g., Abe & Wiseman, 1983; Black, 1990; Cui & Van den Berg, 1991; Hammer, Gudykunst, & Wiseman, 1978).
Collectively, these personality characteristics could be included in a valid selection system for prospective international assignees. It is important to note however, that the absolute level of each personality characteristic would be contingent upon the type of international assignment under consideration. For example, the necessary level of openness and extroversion would be much higher for an executive in a networking role than it would be for a technician working predominantly with a system or machine. A better understanding of the level of necessary characteristics for given international contexts would be useful focus for future research studies.

Language Skills
There is a logical consensus with regard to the positive relationship between language skills and international assignee adjustment (e.g., Abe & Wiseman, 1983; Church, 1982; Cui & Van den Berg, 1991). There is some disagreement, however, to the relative importance of language compared to other factors, such as personality characteristics (e.g., Benson, 1978; Cui & van den Berg, 1991; Dinges, 1983). The disagreement in the importance of language skills has its roots in whether interpersonal contact between people from different cultures leads to increased cultural understanding. Those who support contact theory believe that language skills, given that they are necessary for communication, are critical for cross-cultural adjustment. Others (e.g., Cui & Van den Berg, 1991) suggest that merely interacting with host nationals is not enough to produce cross-cultural adjustment. They suggest that cross-cultural adjustment only occurs when international assignees have the cultural em
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Pilihan pengalihan internasional dan pelatihan lintas-budaya dan pengembanganPaula CaligiuriRutgers University (USA) dan Universita Bocconi (Italia)Ibraiz TariquePace University (USA) Perusahaan-perusahaan multinasional hari bersaing pada efektifitas dan kompetensi inti mereka bakat manusia di seluruh dunia. Semakin, individu-individu ini inti yang diperlukan untuk beroperasi secara efektif di seluruh berbagai batas-batas nasional dan di sejumlah besar lintas pekerjaan tugas. Ini assignees internasional, termasuk semua karyawan yang bekerja di luar batas-batas nasional mereka sendiri (misalnya, orang tua warga negara, warga negara ketiga, warga negara tuan rumah), secara kolektif telah menjadi penting bagi keberhasilan perusahaan multinasional. Assignees internasional ini mengisi kebutuhan staf kritis pada anak perusahaan, mengelola proyek penting, transfer pengetahuan dan budaya perusahaan di geografi, bekerja pada tim multinasional, dan melakukan banyak tugas-tugas penting lain untuk perusahaan mereka. Tugas internasional bisa sangat menantang secara pribadi. Sementara tenggelam dalam lingkungan budaya baru, internasional assignees keluar dari zona kenyamanan mereka sendiri dan rentan terhadap berbagai tantangan seperti ketidakmampuan untuk berbicara bahasa nasional host, ketidakmampuan untuk mengatasi stres budaya shock, ketidakmampuan untuk berinteraksi secara efektif dengan warga negara tuan rumah, dan sejenisnya. Penelitian sebelumnya menunjukkan bahwa orang-orang yang tidak cenderung atau siap untuk menghadapi tantangan-tantangan ini mungkin berkinerja buruk, akan menyesuaikan diri, dll. Mengingat kritis peran mereka dan tantangan terkait tinggal dan bekerja di negara lain, memaksimalkan efektivitas lintas internasional assignees telah menjadi fungsi semakin penting bagi para peneliti dan praktisi sumber daya manusia (SDM) yang sama. Dari perspektif strategis, mengoptimalkan efektivitas assignees internasional-bakat inti bagi perusahaan-perusahaan multinasional yang paling adalah aktivitas HR yang signifikan. Dalam seluruh sistem HR, dua fungsi tertentu yang mempromosikan Antarbudaya efektivitas assignees internasional akan fokus dari bab ini: (1) seleksi dan (2) pelatihan dan pengembangan. Kegiatan HR lainnya, seperti kompensasi, kinerja manajemen dan repatriasi, tidak akan dibahas dalam bab ini namun harus diintegrasikan ke dalam program HR yang komprehensif untuk mengelola assignees internasional. Dalam pemilihan dan pelatihan fungsi, ada tiga bidang utama yang muncul dalam penelitian dan praktek pengelolaan assignees internasional. Yang pertama termasuk pendahulunya individu-tingkat keberhasilan internasional pengalihan, seperti karakteristik kepribadian, keterampilan bahasa, dan pengalaman hidup di negara yang berbeda. Kedua mencakup masalah proses efektif memilih assignees global, realistis preview, pilihan diri dan penilaian. Ketiga meliputi pelatihan dan isu-isu pembangunan untuk mempersiapkan internasional assignees untuk tinggal dan bekerja di lingkungan budaya yang baru seperti mendesain program pelatihan crosscultural efektif. Bab ini akan mencakup bidang-bidang penting ini dan menawarkan beberapa saran untuk penelitian. Pendahulunya individu-tingkat keberhasilan internasional pengalihanKarakteristik kepribadianPara peneliti telah menemukan bahwa sukses dan baik disesuaikan internasional assignees cenderung berbagi ciri-ciri kepribadian tertentu (misalnya, hitam, 1990; Caligiuri, 2000a; 2000b; Gereja, 1982; Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985, Stening, 1979). Karakteristik kepribadian tertentu mengaktifkan internasional assignees menjadi terbuka dan mudah menerima belajar norma-norma budaya baru, untuk memulai kontak dengan tuan rumah berkebangsaan, untuk mengumpulkan informasi budaya, dan untuk menangani jumlah yang lebih tinggi dari stres yang terkait dengan ambiguitas dari lingkungan baru mereka (hitam, 1990; Gereja, 1982; Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985)-semua penting bagi keberhasilan internasional pengalihan. Sementara ada banyak karakteristik kepribadian, penelitian telah menemukan bahwa lima faktor menyediakan tipologi berguna atau taksonomi untuk mengklasifikasikan mereka (Digman, 1990; Goldberg, 1992, 1993; McCrae & Costa, 1987, 1989; McCrae & John, 1992). Faktor-faktor ini lima telah ditemukan berulang kali melalui analisis faktor dan konfirmasi faktor analisis di seberang, waktu, konteks, dan budaya (Buss, 1991; Digman, 1990; Goldberg, 1992, 1993; McCrae & Costa, 1987; McCrae & John, 1992) dan diberi label "lima besar." Faktor-faktor kepribadian lima besar: (1) merupakan bentuk kepedulian, (2) agreeableness, (3) membangun kesadaran, (4) emosional stabilitas, dan (5) keterbukaan atau kecerdasan. Masing-masing ciri kepribadian lima besar memiliki beberapa hubungan internasional pengalihan sukses (yang & Viswesvaran, 1997; Caligiuri, 2000a; Caligiuri, 2000b). Beberapa karakteristik kepribadian mempengaruhi internasional assignees untuk membentuk ikatan sosial yang lebih kuat, yang dapat mendorong tingkat yang lebih tinggi Antarbudaya penyesuaian (Caligiuri, 2000a). Assignees internasional yang mampu menyatakan diri mereka sendiri cukup untuk membangun beberapa hubungan interpersonal dengan warga-negara tuan rumah kedua dan lain assignees internasional cenderung lebih mungkin untuk secara efektif belajar budaya sosial negara tuan rumah (Abe & Wiseman, 1983; Hitam, 1990; Caligiuri, 2000a; Caligiuri, 2000b; Dinges, 1983; Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985; 1988; Searle & Ward, 1990), oleh karena itu, merupakan bentuk kepedulian ini penting untuk membantu internasional assignees mempelajari pekerjaan dan non-pekerjaan sosial budaya di negara yang berkaitan dengan pengalihan internasional sukses. Agreeableness juga mungkin penting mengingat bahwa kemampuan untuk membentuk aliansi sosial timbal balik dicapai melalui kepribadian ini karakteristik (Buss, 1991). Ekspatriat yang lebih menyenangkan (yaitu, berurusan dengan konflik secara kolaboratif, berusaha untuk saling pengertian, dan kurang kompetitif) melaporkan lebih besar Antarbudaya penyesuaian--dan penyesuaian yang lebih besar pada tugas (Caligiuri, 2000a; Caligiuri, 2000b; Orang-orang & Viswesvaran, 1997; Hitam, 1990; Tung, 1981). Karakteristik kepribadian lainnya juga dapat mempengaruhi internasional pengalihan untuk sukses. Sebagai contoh, terpercaya dan teliti karyawan lebih cenderung menjadi pemimpin, mendapatkan status, dipromosikan, mendapatkan gaji yang lebih tinggi, dll. Dalam konteks domestik, ini telah didukung melalui studi menunjukkan hubungan yang positif antara membangun kesadaran dan prestasi kerja antara profesional (misalnya, Barrick & Mount, 1991; Hari & Silverman, 1989). Temuan ini telah ditetapkan sebagai umum kinerja internasional pengalihan (Caligiuri, 2000a; Orang-orang & Viswesvaran, 1997) dan telah ditemukan untuk menjadi prediktor-mereka yang akan efektif dalam tugas-tugas internasional. Selain karakteristik tiga kepribadian yang dijelaskan di atas, kestabilan emosi juga mungkin penting untuk sukses internasional pengalihan. Kestabilan emosi adalah mekanisme adaptif universal memungkinkan manusia untuk mengatasi stres dalam lingkungan mereka (Buss, 1991). Mengingat bahwa stres ini sering dikaitkan dengan tinggal dan bekerja di lingkungan yang ambigu dan asing (Richards, 1996), kestabilan emosi adalah karakteristik penting kepribadian untuk penyesuaian internasional assignees negara tuan rumah (Abe & Wiseman, 1983; Hitam, 1988; Gudykunst, 1988; Gudykunst & palu, 1984; Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985) dan penyelesaian tugas diberi tugas internasional (yang & Viswesvaran, 1997). Mungkin paling intuitif berguna kepribadian karakteristik, yang berhubungan dengan kesuksesan internasional pengalihan, adalah karakteristik intelek dan keterbukaan. Untuk pengalihan internasional, kemampuan untuk dengan benar menilai lingkungan sosial lebih rumit mengingat bahwa negara tuan rumah dapat memberikan isyarat sosial yang ambigu (Caligiuri & hari, 2000). Sukses internasional assignees mungkin akan perlu memiliki kompleksitas kognitif, keterbukaan dan ketajaman persepsi intuitif untuk secara akurat memahami dan menafsirkan budaya warga (Caligiuri, Jacobs, & Farr, 2000; Dinges, 1983; Finney & Von Glinow, 1987; Orang-orang & Viswesvaran, 1997). Keterbukaan berhubungan dengan kesuksesan internasional pengalihan karena individu-individu yang lebih tinggi dalam karakteristik kepribadian ini akan memiliki lebih sedikit kaku pemandangan benar dan salah, tepat dan pantas, dll dan lebih mungkin untuk menerima budaya baru (misalnya, Abe & Wiseman, 1983; Hitam, 1990; Cui & Van den Berg, 1991; Palu, Gudykunst, & Wiseman, 1978). Secara kolektif, ciri-ciri kepribadian ini bisa dimasukkan dalam sistem berlaku seleksi calon assignees internasional. Hal ini penting untuk dicatat bagaimanapun, bahwa tingkat absolut masing-masing ciri kepribadian akan bergantung pada jenis penugasan internasional di bawah pertimbangan. Sebagai contoh, level yang dibutuhkan keterbukaan dan merupakan bentuk kepedulian akan jauh lebih tinggi untuk eksekutif dalam peran jaringan daripada akan bagi seorang teknisi yang bekerja terutama dengan sistem atau mesin. Pemahaman yang lebih baik dari tingkat karakteristik yang diperlukan untuk memberikan konteks internasional akan berguna fokus untuk masa depan penelitian.Keterampilan bahasa Ada konsensus Logis berkaitan dengan hubungan positif antara kemampuan bahasa dan diberi tugas internasional penyesuaian (misalnya, Abe & Wiseman, 1983; Gereja, 1982; Cui & Van den Berg, 1991). Ada beberapa ketidaksepakatan, namun, relatif pentingnya bahasa dibandingkan dengan faktor-faktor lain, seperti karakteristik kepribadian (misalnya, Benson, 1978; Cui & van den Berg, 1991; Dinges, 1983). Perbedaan dalam pentingnya keterampilan bahasa berakar di Apakah interpersonal kontak antara orang-orang dari berbagai budaya yang mengarah ke peningkatan pemahaman budaya. Mereka yang mendukung teori kontak percaya bahwa kemampuan bahasa, mengingat bahwa mereka perlu untuk komunikasi, sangat penting untuk penyesuaian lintas budaya. Lain-lain (misalnya, Cui & Van den Berg, 1991) menyarankan bahwa hanya berinteraksi dengan warga negara tuan rumah ini tidak cukup untuk menghasilkan penyesuaian lintas budaya. Mereka menyarankan bahwa penyesuaian Antarbudaya hanya terjadi ketika internasional assignees memiliki em budaya
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International Assignee Selection and Cross-Cultural Training and Development
Paula Caligiuri
Rutgers University (USA) and Università Bocconi (Italy)
Ibraiz Tarique
Pace University (USA)
Multinational firms today compete on the effectiveness and competence of their core human talent around the world. Increasingly, these core individuals are being required to operate effectively across a variety of national borders and in a greater number of cross-national job assignments. These international assignees, including all employees working outside of their own national borders (e.g., parent country nationals, third country nationals, host country nationals), have collectively become vital for the success of multinational firms. These international assignees fill critical staffing needs in subsidiaries, manage key projects, transfer knowledge and corporate culture across geography, work on multinational teams, and perform many other critical tasks for their firms.
International assignments can be very challenging personally. While immersed in new cultural environments, international assignees are out of their own comfort zones and are susceptible to a variety of challenges such as the inability to speak the host national language, the inability to cope with the stress of culture shock, the inability to interact effectively with host nationals, and the like. Past research suggests that individuals who are not predisposed or prepared to confront these challenges may perform poorly, be maladjusted, etc.
Given the criticality of their roles and the associated challenges of living and working in another country, maximizing the cross-national effectiveness of international assignees has become an increasingly important function for researchers and human resources (HR) practitioners alike. From a strategic perspective, optimizing the effectiveness of international assignees – core talent for most multinational firms’ is a significant HR activity. Within an entire HR system, two specific functions which promote cross-cultural effectiveness among international assignees will be the focus of this chapter: (1) selection and (2) training and development. Other HR activities, such as compensation, performance management, and repatriation, will not be discussed in this chapter yet should be integrated into a comprehensive HR program for managing international assignees.
Within the selection and training functions, there are three major areas that have emerged in both the research and practice of managing international assignees. The first includes the individual-level antecedents of international assignee success, such as personality characteristics, language skills, and prior experience living in a different country. The second includes the process issues for effectively selecting global assignees, such as realistic previews, self-selection, and assessment. The third includes training and development issues for preparing international assignees to live and work in new cultural environments such as designing effective crosscultural training programs. This chapter will cover these important areas and offer some suggestions for future research.

Individual-level Antecedents of International Assignee Success
Personality Characteristics
Researchers have found that successful and well-adjusted international assignees tend to share certain personality traits (e.g., Black, 1990; Caligiuri, 2000a; 2000b; Church, 1982; Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985, Stening, 1979). Certain personality characteristics enable international assignees to be open and receptive to learning the norms of new cultures, to initiate contact with host nationals, to gather cultural information, and to handle the higher amounts of stress associated with the ambiguity of their new environments (Black, 1990; Church, 1982; Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985) – all important for international assignee success. While many personality characteristics exist, research has found that five factors provide a useful typology or taxonomy for classifying them (Digman, 1990; Goldberg, 1992, 1993; McCrae & Costa, 1987, 1989; McCrae & John, 1992). These five factors have been found repeatedly through factor analyses and confirmatory factor analyses across, time, contexts, and cultures (Buss, 1991; Digman, 1990; Goldberg, 1992, 1993; McCrae & Costa, 1987; McCrae & John, 1992) and are labeled "the Big Five." The Big Five personality factors are: (1) extroversion, (2) agreeableness, (3) conscientiousness, (4) emotional stability, and (5) openness or intellect. Each of the Big Five personality characteristics has some relationship to international assignee success (Ones & Viswesvaran, 1997; Caligiuri, 2000a; Caligiuri, 2000b).
Some personality characteristics predispose international assignees to form stronger social bonds, which can encourage a higher level of cross-cultural adjustment (Caligiuri, 2000a). International assignees who are able to assert themselves enough to establish some interpersonal relationships with both host nationals and other international assignees tend to be more likely to effectively learn the social culture of the host country (Abe & Wiseman, 1983; Black, 1990; Caligiuri, 2000a; Caligiuri, 2000b; Dinges, 1983; Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985; 1988; Searle & Ward, 1990), therefore, extroversion is important to help international assignees learn the work and non-work social culture in the host country relates to international assignee success. Agreeableness may also be important given that the ability to form reciprocal social alliances is achieved through this personality characteristic of (Buss, 1991). Expatriates who are more agreeable (i.e., deal with conflict collaboratively, strive for mutual understanding, and are less competitive) report greater cross-cultural adjustment -- and greater adjustment on the assignment (Caligiuri, 2000a; Caligiuri, 2000b; Ones & Viswesvaran, 1997; Black, 1990; Tung, 1981).
Other personality characteristics may also predispose international assignee for success. For example, trusted and conscientious employees are more likely to become leaders, gain status, get promoted, earn higher salaries, etc. In the domestic context, this has been supported through studies demonstrating a positive relationship between conscientiousness and work performance among professionals (e.g., Barrick & Mount, 1991; Day & Silverman, 1989). This finding has been generalized to international assignee performance (Caligiuri, 2000a; Ones & Viswesvaran, 1997) and has been found to be a predictor of those who will be effective in international assignments.
In addition to the three personality characteristics described above, emotional stability may also be important for international assignee success. Emotional stability is the universal adaptive mechanism enabling humans to cope with stress in their environment (Buss, 1991). Given that stress is often associated with living and working in an ambiguous and unfamiliar environment (Richards, 1996), emotional stability is an important personality characteristic for international assignees’ adjustment to the host country (Abe & Wiseman, 1983; Black, 1988; Gudykunst, 1988; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1984; Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985) and completion of an international assignee assignment (Ones & Viswesvaran, 1997).
Perhaps the most intuitively useful personality characteristic, as it relates to international assignee success, is the characteristic of openness or intellect. For an international assignee, the ability to correctly assess the social environment is more complicated given that the host country may provide ambiguous social cues (Caligiuri & Day, 2000). Successful international assignees will likely need to possess cognitive complexity, openness, and intuitive perceptual acuity to accurately perceive and interpret the host culture (Caligiuri, Jacobs, & Farr, 2000; Dinges, 1983; Finney & Von Glinow, 1987; Ones & Viswesvaran, 1997). Openness is related to international assignee success because individuals higher in this personality characteristic will have fewer rigid views of right and wrong, appropriate and inappropriate, etc. and are more likely to be accepting of the new culture (e.g., Abe & Wiseman, 1983; Black, 1990; Cui & Van den Berg, 1991; Hammer, Gudykunst, & Wiseman, 1978).
Collectively, these personality characteristics could be included in a valid selection system for prospective international assignees. It is important to note however, that the absolute level of each personality characteristic would be contingent upon the type of international assignment under consideration. For example, the necessary level of openness and extroversion would be much higher for an executive in a networking role than it would be for a technician working predominantly with a system or machine. A better understanding of the level of necessary characteristics for given international contexts would be useful focus for future research studies.

Language Skills
There is a logical consensus with regard to the positive relationship between language skills and international assignee adjustment (e.g., Abe & Wiseman, 1983; Church, 1982; Cui & Van den Berg, 1991). There is some disagreement, however, to the relative importance of language compared to other factors, such as personality characteristics (e.g., Benson, 1978; Cui & van den Berg, 1991; Dinges, 1983). The disagreement in the importance of language skills has its roots in whether interpersonal contact between people from different cultures leads to increased cultural understanding. Those who support contact theory believe that language skills, given that they are necessary for communication, are critical for cross-cultural adjustment. Others (e.g., Cui & Van den Berg, 1991) suggest that merely interacting with host nationals is not enough to produce cross-cultural adjustment. They suggest that cross-cultural adjustment only occurs when international assignees have the cultural em
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