4.0 EFFECTS ON HUMANS, ECOLOGICAL R

4.0 EFFECTS ON HUMANS, ECOLOGICAL RECEPTORS AND MATERIALS
4.1 Humans and Animals
Ammonia is a volatile, highly water-soluble gas. The primary route of exposure to this chemical is via inhalation. The following summary focuses on the health effects of ammonia following inhalation by animals and humans. The most common effect of ammonia inhalation is irritation of the upper respiratory tract. Eye and skin irritation can also potentially occur at high air concentrations of ammonia.
The release of ammonia gas results in the formation of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) through atmospheric reactions with common air pollutants. Epidemiological studies have positively associated PM2.5 exposure with an increased incidence in respiratory disease and mortality. The human and ecological effects of PM2.5 were not covered in this study.
4.1.1 Overview of Chemical Disposition
The following discussion of absorption, distribution, and excretion of ammonia following inhalation was based primarily on human studies (volunteer exposure to concentrations 500 ppm or 348 mg/m3) or chronic exposure to relatively low concentrations, may saturate the scrubbing ability of the upper respiratory system, resulting in adverse effects on distal portions of the lung including chronic respiratory disease (Michaels, 1999; de la Hoz et. al., 1996). The adsorption of ammonia to dust also enables distribution to lower airways at concentrations not normally associated with an effect on the lower respiratory system (Donham et al., 2000; Kirkhorn and Garry, 2000).
No changes to blood or urinary nitrogen levels in exposed humans (

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4.0 EFFECTS ON HUMANS, ECOLOGICAL RECEPTORS AND MATERIALS4.1 Humans and AnimalsAmmonia is a volatile, highly water-soluble gas. The primary route of exposure to this chemical is via inhalation. The following summary focuses on the health effects of ammonia following inhalation by animals and humans. The most common effect of ammonia inhalation is irritation of the upper respiratory tract. Eye and skin irritation can also potentially occur at high air concentrations of ammonia.The release of ammonia gas results in the formation of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) through atmospheric reactions with common air pollutants. Epidemiological studies have positively associated PM2.5 exposure with an increased incidence in respiratory disease and mortality. The human and ecological effects of PM2.5 were not covered in this study.4.1.1 Overview of Chemical DispositionThe following discussion of absorption, distribution, and excretion of ammonia following inhalation was based primarily on human studies (volunteer exposure to concentrations <500 ppm (348 mg/m3)). One rat study involving higher exposure concentrations (up to 1,157 ppm (806 mg/m3)) was also included. This allows some protection of the lower respiratory system. Human exposure studies have demonstrated that following short-term inhalation exposures of up to 500 ppm (348 mg/m3) ammonia, approximately 80% of the inhaled ammonia is dissolved and absorbed in the mucous lining of the upper respiratory tract. Within thirty minutes the majority of absorbed ammonia is exhaled (ATSDR, 1990; US EPA, 1987; IPCS, 1986; NRC, 1979). Acute exposure to high ammonia concentrations (>500 ppm or 348 mg/m3) or chronic exposure to relatively low concentrations, may saturate the scrubbing ability of the upper respiratory system, resulting in adverse effects on distal portions of the lung including chronic respiratory disease (Michaels, 1999; de la Hoz et. al., 1996). The adsorption of ammonia to dust also enables distribution to lower airways at concentrations not normally associated with an effect on the lower respiratory system (Donham et al., 2000; Kirkhorn and Garry, 2000).No changes to blood or urinary nitrogen levels in exposed humans (<500 ppm)(<348 mg/m3) indicate an insignificant absorption of ammonia into the bloodstream, and therefore, insignificant distribution to other body tissues. This is consistent with the toxic effects, which are predominately related to irritation or damage to upper respiratory tissues where absorption into mucous occurs (ATSDR, 1990;IPCS, 1986).In rats, blood ammonia levels were unaffected by short-term inhalation of 32 ppm (22 mg/m3) ammonia but significantly increased following exposure to 310 ppm (216 mg/m3) to 1157 ppm (806 mg/m3). When exposure was continued for 12 hours, blood levels returned to normal and remained so over the 24-hour treatment period, suggesting that an adaptive response mechanism may be activated with longer-term exposure (Schaerdel et al., 1983).