AbstractWe examine the interplay of the economy and state and local bu terjemahan - AbstractWe examine the interplay of the economy and state and local bu Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

AbstractWe examine the interplay of

Abstract
We examine the interplay of the economy and state and local budgets by developing and examining two measures of fiscal policy: the high-employment budget and fiscal impetus. We find that a 1 percentage point
increase in cyclical GDP results in a 0.1 percentage point increase in NIPA-based net saving through the automatic response of taxes and expenditures. State and local budget policies are found to be modestly
pro-cyclical. Stimulus to aggregate demand is about 0.2 percentage point less following a business cycle peak than it is during the period before the business cycle peak

*Mail Stop 83, Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Washington DC 20551.
Email: glenn.follette@frb.gov andrea.kusko@frb.gov and byron.f.lutz@frb.gov
.
The views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of the Board of Governors or other members of its staff

State and Local Finances and the Macroeconomy:
The High-Employment Budget and Fiscal Impetus
-
INTRODUCTION
Once again, states and localities are facing budgetary pressures and are being forced to take actions to get their fiscal houses in order. Indeed, as measured in the National Income and Product Accounts (NIPA), the sector has posted sizable deficits in its aggregate operating budget inrecent quarters after having experienced a substantial improvement in budget conditions between 2002 and 2006. In this paper, we review recent developments affecting the sector and introduce some analytical tools that can help quantify the interactions between state and local budgetsand the broader economy. We then use these tools to examine previous episodes of “budget repair” for insights about how the adjustment process plays out and how it affects the broader economy.

RECENT STATE AND LOCAL BUDGET DEVELOPMENTS
The fiscal condition of state and local governments lost some luster in 2007 after having improved significantly over the preceding few years; the difficulties have continued—and, in some cases, intensified in 2008. Although some governments—especially those in agricultural and energy-producing regions—continue to enjoy strong
fiscal positions, others are reporting sizable shortfalls in revenues as a consequence of the macroeconomic slowdown and the downturn in real estate markets. Moreover, these difficulties have been compounded by rapid increases in energy and construction prices, along with ongoing pressure from Medicaid outlays.

Our analysis is based on data from the NIPA. These data are aggregated across all state and local governmental units in the United States and are published on a quarterly basis by the Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA);they are available through the second quarter of 2008 although the figures for recent years are subject to substantial revision. The key summary measure in the NIPA is net saving, which is the difference between current receipts and current expenditures and is broadly similar to the surplus or deficit in an operating budget. As Figure 1 indicates, the recent peak in net saving occurred in 2006, when it was equal to 0.4 percent of potential GDP ($46 billion)—similar to the levels reached in the late 1990s in dollar terms but somewhat smaller as a percent of GDP.

However, net saving fell markedly in 2007 and turned sharply negative in the first half of 2008 as revenue increases tailed off after a period of hefty gains and as nominal expenditures—especially on energy and health care—soared. Information collected by the National Association of State Budget Officers (NASBO) is also useful in assessing the sector’s fiscal condition and is presented in Figure 2.
1 In the NASBO framework, the main summary indicator of the fiscal condition of the states is the aggregate balance at year-end in their general and rainy day (budget stabilization) funds. The year-end balance is a combination of stocks and flows. It captures both the flow from this year’s new saving—revenues less expenditures—and the accumulated stock of savings from prior years. According to NASBO (2008), state balances at the end of fiscal 2006 were at a 30-year high (relative to expenditures) and emained elevated in fiscal 2007.

2 However, tabulations of expected state budget balances as of spring 2008 pointto some deterioration infiscal 2008, and many states have reported sizable short falls in revenues in fiscal 2009. Data for local governments collected by the National League of Cities (2008) also point to strong budget balances in 2006 and 2007, although the organization’s most recent report warned that cities’ fiscal conditions have weakened dram atically since that time.

GOVERNMENT BUDGETS AND THE MACROECONOMY
State and local budgets return to the news with every cyclical downturn. 3
Two questions are ever present:
(1) how much does the weakening of the economy hurt budget balances and
(2) how much do actions taken to satisfy balanced budget
____________________________________________________________________________________
1 These data are for fiscal years. For most states and many localities, the fiscal year extends from July 1 of a calendar year to June 30 of the following
calendar year. Fiscal years are designated by the calendar year in which they end.
2 Despite their conceptual differences, the NASBO and NIPA indicators have generally shown the same broad trends In recent years, however,
the year- end balances reported by NASBO seem higher than would be consistent with the published NIPA data, and it is not clear why this discrepancy
has occurred. Nonetheless, we interpret the NASBO indicator (as well assimilar assessments from the National Conference of State Legislatures)
as suggesting that states may be somewhat better positioned to weather the emerging fiscal strains than a straight reading of the NIPA data
would suggest.
3 For example, see Louis Uchitelle, “Think the Economy is Bad? Wait Till the States Cut Back,” New York Times,June 1, 2008.




requirements cut into overall employment and economic activity? Unfortunately, no single analytical apparatus provides satisfactory answers to both questions; thus, we rely on separate tools to answer these questions.
To assess the effect of the business cycle on state and local budgets, we use a high-employment budget framework that allows us to separate NIPA net saving into its cyclical and non-cyclical components; our measure is based on the methodology developed for the federal budget by Frank de Leeuw et al (1980), refined by Cohen and Follette (2000), and subsequently applied to the state and local sector by Knight, Kusko, and Rubin (2003). To assess the effects of state and local budgetary actions on the broader economy, we adapt the “fiscal impetus” measure developed by Cohen (1987) for the federal government; this measure combines information from various sources to provide a summary indicator of the sector’s discretionary budgetary actions.

High-Employment Budget
The high-employment budget methodology allows us to strip out the effects ofcyclical macroeconomic developments on actual budget outcomes and thus provides an indication of the path the budget would have followed had the economy continually operated at its potential level. (Potential GDP must be estimated and is defined as the level of economic activity consistent with high and sustainable levels of resource utilization—of both labor and capital.) The high-employment cyclical adjustment reflects the automatic change in revenues and expenditures produced by cyclical swings in economic activity, i.e. deviations in actual GDP from potential GDP. By design, it is unaffected by the actions governments take to offset the automatic changes in revenue or expenditures, such as tax rate increases in response to falling receipts. Using this methodology, we can divide NIPA net saving into a “non-cyclical” component, which corresponds to the budget path associated with high-employment (or potential) GDP, and a “cyclical” component, which is the difference between actual net saving and high-employment net saving. To construct our measure of the high-employment budget, we use the NIPA data on state and local net saving and the Congressional Budget Office’s (CBO 2008a) estimates of potential GDP; we follow the procedure detailed in Cohen and Follette

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AbstrakKita mengkaji interaksi perekonomian dan negara dan anggaran daerah dengan mengembangkan dan memeriksa dua langkah-langkah kebijakan fiskal yang kuat: anggaran tinggi-kerja dan dorongan fiskal. Kami menemukan bahwa titik persentase 1peningkatan siklus PDB mengakibatkan titik 0.1 persentase kenaikan NIPA berbasis net menyelamatkan melalui tanggapan otomatis pajak dan pengeluaran. Negara dan anggaran daerah kebijakan ditemukan untuk menjadi sederhana Pro-siklikal. Stimulus permintaan agregat adalah tentang titik persentase 0.2 kurang mengikuti puncak siklus bisnis daripada selama periode sebelum puncak siklus bisnis* E-mail Stop 83, Dewan Gubernur Federal Reserve System, Washington DC 20551.Email: glenn.follette@frb.gov andrea.kusko@frb.gov dan byron.f.lutz@frb.gov.Pandangan yang diungkapkan adalah dari penulis dan tidak selalu mewakili orang-orang dari Dewan Gubernur atau anggota lain dari stafNegara bagian dan lokal keuangan dan Macroeconomy:Tinggi-kerja anggaran dan dorongan fiskal- PENDAHULUAN Sekali lagi, negara dan pemukiman menghadapi tekanan anggaran dan dipaksa untuk mengambil tindakan untuk mendapatkan rumah mereka fiskal dalam urutan. Memang, seperti yang diukur dalam pendapatan nasional dan produk account (NIPA), sektor telah diposting cukup besar defisit dalam operasi agregat anggaran inrecent quarters setelah mengalami peningkatan substansial dalam kondisi anggaran antara 2002 dan 2006. Dalam tulisan ini, kami meninjau perkembangan terakhir yang mempengaruhi sektor dan memperkenalkan beberapa alat analisis yang dapat membantu mengukur interaksi antara negara bagian dan lokal budgetsand ekonomi yang lebih luas. Kami kemudian menggunakan alat ini untuk memeriksa episode sebelumnya "anggaran perbaikan" wawasan tentang bagaimana proses penyesuaian bermain keluar dan bagaimana hal itu mempengaruhi ekonomi yang lebih luas. PERKEMBANGAN BARU DAN ANGGARAN DAERAH Kondisi fiskal negara dan pemerintah daerah kehilangan berkilau beberapa pada tahun 2007 setelah memiliki meningkat secara signifikan selama beberapa tahun; sebelumnya kesulitan terus — dan, dalam beberapa kasus, diintensifkan pada 2008. Meskipun beberapa pemerintah — khususnya di daerah pertanian dan penghasil energi — terus menikmati kuat posisi fiskal, lain melaporkan kekurangan yang cukup besar dalam pendapatan akibat perlambatan ekonomi makro dan krisis di pasar real estat. Selain itu, kesulitan-kesulitan ini diperparah oleh kenaikan cepat harga energi dan konstruksi, bersama dengan tekanan berkelanjutan dari Medicaid pengeluaran. Analisis kami didasarkan pada data dari NIPA. Data ini dikumpulkan di semua negara dan unit pemerintahan lokal di Amerika Serikat dan diterbitkan secara triwulanan oleh Biro Analisis Ekonomi (BEA); mereka tersedia melalui kuartal kedua 2008 meskipun angka tahun terakhir dikenakan revisi besar. Ukuran ringkasan kunci di NIPA bersih Nabung, yang merupakan perbedaan antara saat ini penerimaan dan pengeluaran saat ini dan memiliki kemiripan dengan kelebihan atau defisit anggaran operasional. Seperti gambar 1 menunjukkan, puncak hari dalam menyelamatkan bersih terjadi pada 2006, ketika itu sama dengan 0,4 persen dari potensi PDB ($46 miliar) — serupa ke tingkat yang dicapai di akhir 1990-an di dollar tapi agak lebih kecil sebagai persentase PDB. Namun, bersih penghematan jatuh tajam pada tahun 2007 dan berbalik tajam negatif pada paruh pertama tahun 2008 sebagai pendapatan meningkat ekor off setelah periode keuntungan yang besar dan kuat serta pengeluaran nominal — terutama pada energi dan perawatan kesehatan — melambung. Informasi yang dikumpulkan oleh National Association of State anggaran petugas (NASBO) ini juga berguna dalam menilai kondisi sektor fiskal dan disajikan pada gambar 2. 1 dalam rangka NASBO, ringkasan indikator utama kondisi fiskal Serikat adalah keseimbangan agregat pada akhir tahun di dananya (anggaran stabilisasi) Umum dan hari-hari hujan. Saldo akhir tahun adalah kombinasi dari saham dan mengalir. Ia menangkap kedua aliran dari tabungan baru tahun ini-pendapatan kurang pengeluaran — dan akumulasi saham tabungan dari tahun-tahun sebelumnya. Menurut NASBO (2008), negara saldo pada akhir tahun fiskal 2006 yang tinggi 30-tahun (relatif terhadap pengeluaran) dan emained meningkat pada tahun 2007.2 Namun, Tabulasi dari diharapkan APBN menyeimbangkan pada musim semi 2008 pointto beberapa kerusakan infiscal tahun 2008, dan banyak negara telah melaporkan cukup besar jatuh pendek pendapatan fiskal 2009. Data untuk pemerintah daerah yang dikumpulkan oleh Liga Nasional kota (2008) juga menunjukkan saldo anggaran yang kuat pada tahun 2006 dan 2007, meskipun laporan organisasi memperingatkan bahwa kondisi fiskal kota telah melemah dram atically sejak saat itu. ANGGARAN PEMERINTAH DAN MACROECONOMYNegara dan anggaran daerah kembali ke berita dengan penurunan setiap siklus. 3 Dua pertanyaan pernah hadir: (1) berapa melemahnya perekonomian menyakiti anggaran saldo dan (2) berapa banyak melakukan tindakan yang diambil untuk memenuhi anggaran berimbang____________________________________________________________________________________1 data adalah untuk tahun fiskal. Untuk kebanyakan negara dan banyak pemukiman, tahun fiskal memanjang dari 1 Juli tahun kalender 30 Juni berikut tahun kalender. Tahun fiskal yang ditunjuk oleh tahun kalender di mana mereka akhirnya.2 meski memiliki perbedaan konseptual, NASBO dan NIPA indikator umumnya menunjukkan tren luas yang sama dalam beberapa tahun terakhir, namun, akhir tahun saldo yang dilaporkan oleh NASBO tampak lebih tinggi daripada yang konsisten dengan data NIPA diterbitkan, dan tidak jelas mengapa perbedaan ini telah terjadi. Meskipun demikian, kita menafsirkan indikator NASBO (sebagai baik assimilar penilaian dari konferensi nasional legislatif negara) seperti menyarankan bahwa Serikat mungkin agak lebih baik diposisikan untuk cuaca strain fiskal muncul daripada lurus membaca NIPA data menyarankan. 3 misalnya, melihat Louis Uchitelle, "pikir ekonomi adalah buruk? Tunggu sampai negara-negara memotong kembali,"New York Times, 1 Juni 2008. persyaratan potong keseluruhan pekerjaan dan aktivitas ekonomi? Sayangnya, aparat analitis tunggal tidak memberikan jawaban yang memuaskan atas pertanyaan kedua; dengan demikian, kami mengandalkan alat terpisah untuk menjawab pertanyaan-pertanyaan. Untuk menilai efek dari siklus bisnis di negara dan anggaran daerah, kami menggunakan kerangka kerja tinggi anggaran yang memungkinkan kita untuk memisahkan NIPA bersih tabungan ke dalam komponennya siklus dan bebas-siklus; ukuran kami berdasarkan metodologinya dikembangkan untuk anggaran federal oleh Frank de Leeuw et al (1980), halus oleh Cohen dan Follette (2000), dan kemudian diterapkan ke negara dan sektor lokal dengan Knight, Kusko, dan Rubin (2003). Untuk menilai efek dari negara bagian dan lokal anggaran tindakan pada ekonomi yang lebih luas, kami menyesuaikan ukuran "fiskal dorongan" yang dikembangkan oleh Cohen (1987) untuk pemerintah federal; ukuran ini menggabungkan informasi dari berbagai sumber untuk menyediakan indikator ringkasan sektor discretionary tindakan anggaran. Tinggi-kerja anggaran Metodologi yang tinggi-kerja anggaran memungkinkan kita untuk menghapus perkembangan makroekonomi ofcyclical efek pada hasil realisasi anggaran dan dengan demikian menyediakan indikasi anggaran akan mengikuti jalan yang telah perekonomian terus beroperasi pada tingkat yang potensial. (PDB potensial harus dapat diperkirakan dan didefinisikan sebagai tingkat aktivitas ekonomi yang konsisten dengan tingkat tinggi dan berkelanjutan pemanfaatan sumberdaya — buruh dan modal.) Penyesuaian berhubung dgn putaran tinggi-kerja mencerminkan perubahan otomatis anggaran pendapatan dan belanja diproduksi oleh siklus ayunan dalam kegiatan ekonomi, yaitu penyimpangan dalam GDP sebenarnya dari potensi PDB. Dengan desain, tidak terpengaruh oleh tindakan pemerintah mengambil untuk mengimbangi perubahan otomatis pendapatan atau pengeluaran, seperti kenaikan tarif pajak dalam menanggapi penerimaan jatuh. Metodologi ini, kita dapat membagi NIPA bersih menyimpan ke dalam komponen "bebas-siklus", yang berkaitan dengan jalan anggaran yang terkait dengan PDB tinggi-kerja (atau potensial), dan komponen "siklus", yang merupakan perbedaan aktual bersih tabungan dan menyelamatkan bersih tinggi-kerja. Untuk membangun ukuran anggaran tinggi-kerja kami, kami menggunakan NIPA data pada keadaan dan menyelamatkan bersih lokal dan Kantor Anggaran Kongres 's (CBO 2008a) memperkirakan potensi PDB; Kami mengikuti prosedur yang rinci dalam Cohen dan Follette
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Abstract
We examine the interplay of the economy and state and local budgets by developing and examining two measures of fiscal policy: the high-employment budget and fiscal impetus. We find that a 1 percentage point
increase in cyclical GDP results in a 0.1 percentage point increase in NIPA-based net saving through the automatic response of taxes and expenditures. State and local budget policies are found to be modestly
pro-cyclical. Stimulus to aggregate demand is about 0.2 percentage point less following a business cycle peak than it is during the period before the business cycle peak

*Mail Stop 83, Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Washington DC 20551.
Email: glenn.follette@frb.gov andrea.kusko@frb.gov and byron.f.lutz@frb.gov
.
The views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of the Board of Governors or other members of its staff

State and Local Finances and the Macroeconomy:
The High-Employment Budget and Fiscal Impetus
-
INTRODUCTION
Once again, states and localities are facing budgetary pressures and are being forced to take actions to get their fiscal houses in order. Indeed, as measured in the National Income and Product Accounts (NIPA), the sector has posted sizable deficits in its aggregate operating budget inrecent quarters after having experienced a substantial improvement in budget conditions between 2002 and 2006. In this paper, we review recent developments affecting the sector and introduce some analytical tools that can help quantify the interactions between state and local budgetsand the broader economy. We then use these tools to examine previous episodes of “budget repair” for insights about how the adjustment process plays out and how it affects the broader economy.

RECENT STATE AND LOCAL BUDGET DEVELOPMENTS
The fiscal condition of state and local governments lost some luster in 2007 after having improved significantly over the preceding few years; the difficulties have continued—and, in some cases, intensified in 2008. Although some governments—especially those in agricultural and energy-producing regions—continue to enjoy strong
fiscal positions, others are reporting sizable shortfalls in revenues as a consequence of the macroeconomic slowdown and the downturn in real estate markets. Moreover, these difficulties have been compounded by rapid increases in energy and construction prices, along with ongoing pressure from Medicaid outlays.

Our analysis is based on data from the NIPA. These data are aggregated across all state and local governmental units in the United States and are published on a quarterly basis by the Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA);they are available through the second quarter of 2008 although the figures for recent years are subject to substantial revision. The key summary measure in the NIPA is net saving, which is the difference between current receipts and current expenditures and is broadly similar to the surplus or deficit in an operating budget. As Figure 1 indicates, the recent peak in net saving occurred in 2006, when it was equal to 0.4 percent of potential GDP ($46 billion)—similar to the levels reached in the late 1990s in dollar terms but somewhat smaller as a percent of GDP.

However, net saving fell markedly in 2007 and turned sharply negative in the first half of 2008 as revenue increases tailed off after a period of hefty gains and as nominal expenditures—especially on energy and health care—soared. Information collected by the National Association of State Budget Officers (NASBO) is also useful in assessing the sector’s fiscal condition and is presented in Figure 2.
1 In the NASBO framework, the main summary indicator of the fiscal condition of the states is the aggregate balance at year-end in their general and rainy day (budget stabilization) funds. The year-end balance is a combination of stocks and flows. It captures both the flow from this year’s new saving—revenues less expenditures—and the accumulated stock of savings from prior years. According to NASBO (2008), state balances at the end of fiscal 2006 were at a 30-year high (relative to expenditures) and emained elevated in fiscal 2007.

2 However, tabulations of expected state budget balances as of spring 2008 pointto some deterioration infiscal 2008, and many states have reported sizable short falls in revenues in fiscal 2009. Data for local governments collected by the National League of Cities (2008) also point to strong budget balances in 2006 and 2007, although the organization’s most recent report warned that cities’ fiscal conditions have weakened dram atically since that time.

GOVERNMENT BUDGETS AND THE MACROECONOMY
State and local budgets return to the news with every cyclical downturn. 3
Two questions are ever present:
(1) how much does the weakening of the economy hurt budget balances and
(2) how much do actions taken to satisfy balanced budget
____________________________________________________________________________________
1 These data are for fiscal years. For most states and many localities, the fiscal year extends from July 1 of a calendar year to June 30 of the following
calendar year. Fiscal years are designated by the calendar year in which they end.
2 Despite their conceptual differences, the NASBO and NIPA indicators have generally shown the same broad trends In recent years, however,
the year- end balances reported by NASBO seem higher than would be consistent with the published NIPA data, and it is not clear why this discrepancy
has occurred. Nonetheless, we interpret the NASBO indicator (as well assimilar assessments from the National Conference of State Legislatures)
as suggesting that states may be somewhat better positioned to weather the emerging fiscal strains than a straight reading of the NIPA data
would suggest.
3 For example, see Louis Uchitelle, “Think the Economy is Bad? Wait Till the States Cut Back,” New York Times,June 1, 2008.




requirements cut into overall employment and economic activity? Unfortunately, no single analytical apparatus provides satisfactory answers to both questions; thus, we rely on separate tools to answer these questions.
To assess the effect of the business cycle on state and local budgets, we use a high-employment budget framework that allows us to separate NIPA net saving into its cyclical and non-cyclical components; our measure is based on the methodology developed for the federal budget by Frank de Leeuw et al (1980), refined by Cohen and Follette (2000), and subsequently applied to the state and local sector by Knight, Kusko, and Rubin (2003). To assess the effects of state and local budgetary actions on the broader economy, we adapt the “fiscal impetus” measure developed by Cohen (1987) for the federal government; this measure combines information from various sources to provide a summary indicator of the sector’s discretionary budgetary actions.

High-Employment Budget
The high-employment budget methodology allows us to strip out the effects ofcyclical macroeconomic developments on actual budget outcomes and thus provides an indication of the path the budget would have followed had the economy continually operated at its potential level. (Potential GDP must be estimated and is defined as the level of economic activity consistent with high and sustainable levels of resource utilization—of both labor and capital.) The high-employment cyclical adjustment reflects the automatic change in revenues and expenditures produced by cyclical swings in economic activity, i.e. deviations in actual GDP from potential GDP. By design, it is unaffected by the actions governments take to offset the automatic changes in revenue or expenditures, such as tax rate increases in response to falling receipts. Using this methodology, we can divide NIPA net saving into a “non-cyclical” component, which corresponds to the budget path associated with high-employment (or potential) GDP, and a “cyclical” component, which is the difference between actual net saving and high-employment net saving. To construct our measure of the high-employment budget, we use the NIPA data on state and local net saving and the Congressional Budget Office’s (CBO 2008a) estimates of potential GDP; we follow the procedure detailed in Cohen and Follette

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