Encoding, Storage, and RetrievalFin

Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
Finally, encoding, storage, and retrieval are assessed using memory measures (Lang; 2000). Encoding is assessed using recognition tests. Recognition measures show participants the exact stimulus they saw and ask, yes or no, did you see this before? Techniques for measuring recognition include paper-and-pencil multiple-choice questions about either audio or video information, forced choice yes/no audio and visual recognition tests, and signal detection measures and analysis. These techniques can be combined to separately measure audio and visual information over time as a function of change in the message.
Storage has been assessed using cued recall measures. In general, LC4MP studies have used fill-in-the-blank-type questions that cue respondents to specific parts of a message and ask them to retrieve a specific piece of audio or visual information in order to correctly complete a sentence. Post-viewing retrieval of information presented in the message has been assessed using free recall techniques. To date, no measure of concurrent retrieval has been developed for use during message processing.

MEASURING THE MESSAGE
The second class of variables to be measured in LC4MP relates to the message. Any number of message characteristics could be assessed over time and used as a variable in the LC4MP perspective. Because message processing is constrained by available resources, of particular importance are variables that measure the resources requited to process the message and those that measure stimulus characteristics that elicit automatic resource allocation. Many different types of measurement have been used over the years, and there is insufficient space here to cover all of them. Instead, here we will present two measures that have been developed for use with television and radio messages which, when used together, seem to assess both resources required and resources automatically allocated to a message. The measures are called orienting-eliciting structural features (OESF) and information introduced (II) (Lang, Park, Sanders-Jackson, Wilson, & Wang, 2007; Potter et al., 2006). OESF is coded by viewing a message and counting the number of structural features that have been shown to elicit orienting responses. These can be coded over time for a real-time measure or summed and divided by the number of seconds in the message for a global assessment of resource allocation. II is then coded to determine the information introduced by each of the structural features. To do this, content immediately before and after the structural feature is compared to determine whether new information has been introduced along seven video or six audio dimensions. The audio dimensions are object change, new object, unrelated, perspective change, distance change, form change, and emotion change. The audio dimensions are voice, change, new voice, unrelated, form change, natural sound, and emotion change. Again, this information can produce an over time record of resources required or be divided by seconds for a global measure.
The other type of information that needs to be assessed is motivationally relevant information. Again, this can be done globally or locally. Global indications of the amount of motivationally relevant information can be obtained by having coders or research participants rate how they felt emotionally after viewing messages. A more precise, over time indicator of motivationally relevant content can be obtained by having participants rate messages continuously on various motivationally relevant dimensions such as negativity, positivity, arousal, sexual attraction, humor, fear, threat, and so forth.

MEASURING THE MEDIA USER
Individual differences among media users present another potentially endless category of variables. However, LC4MP suggests types of individual difference variables that will be particularly relevant to message processing. For example, any individual difference variable that is related to resource allocation or resources required to process the message will be an important variable in LC4MP. Among the variables that have been looked at in this category are expertise and familiarity. Another class of variables that are important are those related to motivational activation. Recent work in LC4MP has developed an individual difference measure of resting activation in the appetitive and aversive systems (Lang, Bradley, Sparks, & Lee, 2007; Lang, Shin, & Lee, 2005). The measure called the Motivational Activation Measure (MAM) has participants rate their emotional responses on three scales (positivity, negativity, and arousal) to 32 previously selected emotional pictures. These ratings are used to create two variables called positivity offset and negativity bias, which indicate an individual’s overall tendency to approach and avoid. Research suggests that those high in positivity offset show greater appetitive activation in response to many types of mediated messages. Similarly, those high in negativity bias show larger aversive activation in response to mediated messages. These individual differences influence the ongoing motivational activation elicited by mediated messages and, as a result, influence how those messages are processed (Lang, Yegiyan, & Bradley, 2006a, 2006b).
 A Little Future Music
The LC4MP is a broad framework that provides a way of thinking about message processing in all media (old, new, and not yet invented) and a set of tools to help investigate how those messages and media are processed. The theoretical foundation is based on what we know about the human information processing system (which changes only slowly over millions of years), while the fast-changing media are represented by variables in the framework. The approach focuses on the actual time period when messages are being processed by individuals within an environment. Environments—which also can change rapidly—also represent a class of variables in the model. It recognizes that things about individuals, things about environments, things about media, and things about messages all influence what information is taken away from a media use session. However, while recognizing the complexity of the over time interaction, it begins the process of explicating how those variables interact with one another and argues that it is indeed possible to understand, explain, and eventually predict those interactions. The most recent work in the perspective is beginning the process of trying to model the over-time interactions among motivational activation, message change, and cognitive processing (Bradley, 2007a; Wang, 2007). It is hoped that this work will lead to the development of complex cognitive models that will successfully predict the emotional response and overall memory for mediated messages as a function of message structure and content. In the meantime, a great deal of work remains to be done assessing which structural features of which media elicit automatic resource allocation and which types of media content are motivationally relevant, assessing more exactly the relationship between motivational activation and cognitive processing, and developing better measures of all of these variables.

Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 1:

Pengkodean, Penyimpanan dan RetrievalAkhirnya, pengkodean, Penyimpanan, dan pengambilan dinilai menggunakan langkah-langkah memori (Lang; 2000). Pengkodean dinilai menggunakan tes pengakuan. Langkah-langkah pengakuan menunjukkan peserta stimulus yang tepat mereka melihat dan bertanya, ya atau tidak, Apakah Anda melihat ini sebelumnya? Teknik untuk mengukur pengakuan meliputi kertas dan pensil didengarnya tentang informasi baik audio atau video, memaksa pilihan ya/tidak audio dan visual pengakuan tes, dan langkah-langkah deteksi sinyal dan analisis. Teknik ini dapat dikombinasikan untuk mengukur secara terpisah informasi audio dan visual dari waktu ke waktu sebagai fungsi perubahan dalam pesan.Penyimpanan telah dinilai menggunakan langkah-langkah cued yang ingat. Secara umum, LC4MP studi telah menggunakan mengisi-in-the-kosong-jenis pertanyaan responden isyarat bahwa bagian-bagian tertentu dari pesan dan meminta mereka untuk mengambil bagian tertentu dari informasi audio atau visual untuk menyelesaikan kalimat dengan benar. Pasca melihat pengambilan informasi yang disajikan dalam pesan telah telah dinilai menggunakan teknik ingat gratis. Sampai saat ini, tidak ukuran serentak pengambilan telah dikembangkan untuk digunakan selama pemrosesan pesan.MENGUKUR PESANThe second class of variables to be measured in LC4MP relates to the message. Any number of message characteristics could be assessed over time and used as a variable in the LC4MP perspective. Because message processing is constrained by available resources, of particular importance are variables that measure the resources requited to process the message and those that measure stimulus characteristics that elicit automatic resource allocation. Many different types of measurement have been used over the years, and there is insufficient space here to cover all of them. Instead, here we will present two measures that have been developed for use with television and radio messages which, when used together, seem to assess both resources required and resources automatically allocated to a message. The measures are called orienting-eliciting structural features (OESF) and information introduced (II) (Lang, Park, Sanders-Jackson, Wilson, & Wang, 2007; Potter et al., 2006). OESF is coded by viewing a message and counting the number of structural features that have been shown to elicit orienting responses. These can be coded over time for a real-time measure or summed and divided by the number of seconds in the message for a global assessment of resource allocation. II is then coded to determine the information introduced by each of the structural features. To do this, content immediately before and after the structural feature is compared to determine whether new information has been introduced along seven video or six audio dimensions. The audio dimensions are object change, new object, unrelated, perspective change, distance change, form change, and emotion change. The audio dimensions are voice, change, new voice, unrelated, form change, natural sound, and emotion change. Again, this information can produce an over time record of resources required or be divided by seconds for a global measure.The other type of information that needs to be assessed is motivationally relevant information. Again, this can be done globally or locally. Global indications of the amount of motivationally relevant information can be obtained by having coders or research participants rate how they felt emotionally after viewing messages. A more precise, over time indicator of motivationally relevant content can be obtained by having participants rate messages continuously on various motivationally relevant dimensions such as negativity, positivity, arousal, sexual attraction, humor, fear, threat, and so forth.MEASURING THE MEDIA USERIndividual differences among media users present another potentially endless category of variables. However, LC4MP suggests types of individual difference variables that will be particularly relevant to message processing. For example, any individual difference variable that is related to resource allocation or resources required to process the message will be an important variable in LC4MP. Among the variables that have been looked at in this category are expertise and familiarity. Another class of variables that are important are those related to motivational activation. Recent work in LC4MP has developed an individual difference measure of resting activation in the appetitive and aversive systems (Lang, Bradley, Sparks, & Lee, 2007; Lang, Shin, & Lee, 2005). The measure called the Motivational Activation Measure (MAM) has participants rate their emotional responses on three scales (positivity, negativity, and arousal) to 32 previously selected emotional pictures. These ratings are used to create two variables called positivity offset and negativity bias, which indicate an individual’s overall tendency to approach and avoid. Research suggests that those high in positivity offset show greater appetitive activation in response to many types of mediated messages. Similarly, those high in negativity bias show larger aversive activation in response to mediated messages. These individual differences influence the ongoing motivational activation elicited by mediated messages and, as a result, influence how those messages are processed (Lang, Yegiyan, & Bradley, 2006a, 2006b). A Little Future Music
The LC4MP is a broad framework that provides a way of thinking about message processing in all media (old, new, and not yet invented) and a set of tools to help investigate how those messages and media are processed. The theoretical foundation is based on what we know about the human information processing system (which changes only slowly over millions of years), while the fast-changing media are represented by variables in the framework. The approach focuses on the actual time period when messages are being processed by individuals within an environment. Environments—which also can change rapidly—also represent a class of variables in the model. It recognizes that things about individuals, things about environments, things about media, and things about messages all influence what information is taken away from a media use session. However, while recognizing the complexity of the over time interaction, it begins the process of explicating how those variables interact with one another and argues that it is indeed possible to understand, explain, and eventually predict those interactions. The most recent work in the perspective is beginning the process of trying to model the over-time interactions among motivational activation, message change, and cognitive processing (Bradley, 2007a; Wang, 2007). It is hoped that this work will lead to the development of complex cognitive models that will successfully predict the emotional response and overall memory for mediated messages as a function of message structure and content. In the meantime, a great deal of work remains to be done assessing which structural features of which media elicit automatic resource allocation and which types of media content are motivationally relevant, assessing more exactly the relationship between motivational activation and cognitive processing, and developing better measures of all of these variables.

Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 2:

Encoding, Penyimpanan, dan Retrieval
Akhirnya, encoding, storage, dan pengambilan dinilai menggunakan langkah-langkah memori (Lang, 2000). Pengkodean dinilai menggunakan tes pengakuan. Tindakan Pengakuan menunjukkan peserta stimulus yang tepat yang mereka lihat dan bertanya, ya atau tidak, apakah Anda melihat ini sebelumnya? Teknik untuk mengukur pengakuan meliputi kertas dan pensil pertanyaan pilihan ganda tentang baik informasi audio atau video, pilihan paksa ya / tidak audio dan tes pengenalan visual, dan sinyal langkah-langkah deteksi dan analisis. Teknik-teknik ini dapat dikombinasikan untuk mengukur secara terpisah informasi audio dan visual yang dari waktu ke waktu sebagai fungsi perubahan dalam pesan.
Penyimpanan telah dinilai dengan menggunakan langkah-langkah recall cued. Secara umum, penelitian LC4MP telah menggunakan mengisi-in-the-kosong-jenis pertanyaan yang isyarat responden untuk bagian-bagian tertentu dari pesan dan meminta mereka untuk mengambil bagian tertentu dari audio atau informasi visual untuk benar menyelesaikan kalimat. Pengambilan pasca-tampilan informasi yang disajikan dalam pesan telah dinilai dengan menggunakan teknik penarikan gratis. Sampai saat ini, tidak ada ukuran pengambilan bersamaan telah dikembangkan untuk digunakan selama pemrosesan pesan. MENGUKUR PESAN Kelas kedua variabel yang akan diukur dalam LC4MP berkaitan dengan pesan. Sejumlah karakteristik pesan dapat dinilai dari waktu ke waktu dan digunakan sebagai variabel dalam perspektif LC4MP. Karena pemrosesan pesan dibatasi oleh sumber daya yang tersedia, penting khususnya adalah variabel yang mengukur sumber daya balasan untuk memproses pesan dan orang-orang yang mengukur karakteristik stimulus yang menimbulkan alokasi sumber daya secara otomatis. Banyak jenis pengukuran telah digunakan selama bertahun-tahun, dan ada cukup ruang di sini untuk menutupi semuanya. Sebaliknya, di sini kita akan menyajikan dua ukuran yang telah dikembangkan untuk digunakan dengan pesan televisi dan radio yang, bila digunakan bersama-sama, tampaknya menilai kedua sumber daya yang diperlukan dan sumber daya secara otomatis dialokasikan untuk pesan. Langkah-langkah yang disebut berorientasi-memunculkan fitur struktural (OESF) dan informasi diperkenalkan (II) (Lang, Taman, Sanders-Jackson, Wilson, & Wang, 2007; Potter et al, 2006.). OESF dikodekan dengan melihat pesan dan menghitung jumlah fitur struktural yang telah terbukti untuk mendapatkan tanggapan orientasi. Ini dapat kode dari waktu ke waktu untuk ukuran real-time atau dijumlahkan dan dibagi dengan jumlah detik dalam pesan untuk penilaian global alokasi sumber daya. II kemudian kode untuk menentukan informasi yang diperkenalkan oleh masing-masing fitur struktural. Untuk melakukan hal ini, konten segera sebelum dan sesudah fitur struktural dibandingkan untuk menentukan apakah informasi baru telah diperkenalkan bersama tujuh video atau enam dimensi audio. Dimensi audio perubahan objek, objek baru, tidak terkait, perubahan perspektif, perubahan jarak, bentuk perubahan, dan perubahan emosi. Dimensi audio suara, perubahan, suara baru, tidak terkait, bentuk perubahan, suara alam, dan perubahan emosi. Sekali lagi, informasi ini dapat menghasilkan catatan dari waktu ke waktu dari sumber daya yang dibutuhkan atau dibagi dengan detik untuk ukuran global. Jenis lain dari informasi yang perlu dikaji adalah motivationally informasi yang relevan. Sekali lagi, hal ini dapat dilakukan secara global atau lokal. Indikasi Global jumlah informasi motivationally relevan dapat diperoleh dengan memiliki coders atau peserta penelitian menilai bagaimana mereka merasa emosional setelah melihat pesan. Yang lebih tepat, dari waktu ke waktu indikator konten motivationally relevan dapat diperoleh dengan memiliki pesan peserta tingkat terus menerus pada berbagai dimensi motivationally relevan seperti negatif, positif, gairah, daya tarik seksual, humor, ketakutan, ancaman, dan sebagainya. MENGUKUR MEDIA PENGGUNA perbedaan individual di antara pengguna media yang menyajikan lain kategori berpotensi tak berujung variabel. Namun, LC4MP menunjukkan jenis variabel perbedaan individu yang akan relevan dengan pengolahan pesan. Misalnya, variabel perbedaan individu yang berhubungan dengan alokasi sumber daya atau sumber daya yang dibutuhkan untuk memproses pesan akan menjadi variabel penting dalam LC4MP. Di antara variabel yang telah melihat dalam kategori ini adalah keahlian dan keakraban. Kelas lain dari variabel yang penting adalah yang berkaitan dengan aktivasi motivasi. Kerja terbaru di LC4MP telah mengembangkan perbedaan ukuran individu beristirahat aktivasi di appetitive dan permusuhan sistem (Lang, Bradley, Sparks, & Lee, 2007; Lang, Shin, dan Lee, 2005). Ukuran yang disebut Ukur Motivasi Aktivasi (MAM) memiliki peserta menilai respon emosional mereka pada tiga skala (positif, negatif, dan gairah) 32 gambar emosional yang dipilih sebelumnya. Peringkat ini digunakan untuk membuat dua variabel disebut positif offset dan bias negatif, yang menunjukkan keseluruhan kecenderungan individu untuk mendekati dan menghindari. Penelitian menunjukkan bahwa mereka yang tinggi positif mengimbangi menunjukkan aktivasi appetitive lebih besar dalam menanggapi berbagai jenis pesan dimediasi. Demikian pula, mereka yang tinggi bias negatif menunjukkan aktivasi permusuhan yang lebih besar dalam menanggapi pesan dimediasi. Ini perbedaan individu mempengaruhi aktivasi motivasi yang berkelanjutan ditimbulkan oleh pesan dimediasi dan, sebagai hasilnya, pengaruh bagaimana pesan tersebut diproses (Lang, Yegiyan, & Bradley, 2006a, 2006b).  Sedikit Future Music The LC4MP adalah kerangka kerja yang luas yang menyediakan cara berpikir tentang pengolahan pesan di semua media (lama, baru, dan belum ditemukan) dan satu set alat untuk membantu menyelidiki bagaimana pesan-pesan dan media diproses. Landasan teoritis didasarkan pada apa yang kita ketahui tentang sistem pengolahan informasi manusia (yang berubah secara perlahan-lahan selama jutaan tahun), sedangkan media yang cepat berubah diwakili oleh variabel dalam rangka. Pendekatan ini berfokus pada jangka waktu yang sebenarnya ketika pesan sedang diproses oleh individu dalam suatu lingkungan. Lingkungan-yang juga dapat berubah dengan cepat-juga merupakan kelas variabel dalam model. Ia mengakui bahwa hal-hal tentang individu, hal-hal tentang lingkungan, hal-hal tentang media, dan hal-hal tentang pesan semua pengaruh informasi apa yang diambil dari sesi penggunaan media yang. Namun, sementara mengakui kompleksitas dari waktu ke waktu interaksi, ia mulai proses memberi penjelasan bagaimana variabel berinteraksi satu sama lain dan berpendapat bahwa memang mungkin untuk memahami, menjelaskan, dan akhirnya memprediksi mereka interaksi. Karya terbaru dalam perspektif mulai proses mencoba model interaksi selama waktu antara aktivasi motivasi, perubahan pesan, dan pengolahan kognitif (Bradley, 2007a; Wang, 2007). Diharapkan bahwa pekerjaan ini akan mengarah pada pengembangan model kognitif yang kompleks yang berhasil akan memprediksi respons emosional dan memori secara keseluruhan untuk pesan dimediasi sebagai fungsi dari struktur pesan dan konten. Sementara itu, banyak pekerjaan yang harus dilakukan menilai mana fitur struktural mana media memperoleh alokasi sumber daya otomatis dan jenis yang konten media motivationally relevan, menilai lebih tepatnya hubungan antara aktivasi motivasi dan pengolahan kognitif, dan mengembangkan langkah-langkah yang lebih baik dari semua variabel.