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psy-function warmed itself by campus fires in departments of psychology, sociology, and education. Scholars at Harvard took charge of the theory; faculty at Chicago the task of meeting and greeting the great unwashed; and those at Columbia the statistical manipulation (Staiger, 2005, pp. 21—22). The extension through societies of the capacity to react had as its corollary the possibility of a public that transcended people physically gathered together, with obvious implications—mass literacy could inform industrial and political turmoil. When unionists in the Cuban cigar industry organized readings of news and current affairs to workers on the line, management and the state responded brutally. In the United States, slave owners terrorized African Americans who taught themselves and their colleagues to read; Nat Turner’s 1831 Rebellion was attributed by many to his literacy. The advent of reading out doors and the arrival of the train as a new site of public culture generated anxieties about open knowledge and debate. The telegraph’s capacity to spread information from the eastern states to 19th-century Californians before they had finished breakfast was accused of exhausting emotional energies at the wrong time of day, while its presence in saloons expanded working-class betting on sporting events. Neurological experts attributed their increased business to telegraphy, alongside the expansion of steam, periodical literatur science, and educated women. Nineteenth century U.S. society saw spirited debates over whether new popular media and genres, such as newspapers, crime stories, and novels, would breed anarchic readers lacking respect for the traditionally literate classes. The media posed a threat to established elites, because they enabled working people to become independently minded and informed, distracting them from servitude (Miller, 1998).
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