Generalizations and alternative arrangementsThe general proposition th terjemahan - Generalizations and alternative arrangementsThe general proposition th Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

Generalizations and alternative arr

Generalizations and alternative arrangements
The general proposition that client-specific quasi-rents create a benefit to
auditor size continues to hold when these quasi-rents vary across clients.
However, another factor becomes important: the percentage of the auditor's
total quasi-rent stream which is specific to any one client. In particular,
clients for which client-specific quasi-rents are relatively large in a given
auditor's portfolio pose special independence problems not captured by the
analysis so far. When quasi-rents are not identical across clients, the variable
of interest to consumers is the relationship between the value of an auditor's
quasi-rents specific to a particular client and the value of the auditor's total
quasi-rent stream.
When client-specific quasi-rents vary across clients, auditor size (as
measured by the number of current clients) continue to serve as a surrogate
for audit quality because larger auditors possess greater total collateral.
However, size alone does not inform consumers about the relationship
between the quasi-rents specific to one (potentially large) client and the
auditor's total quasi-rent stream. Therefore, when client-specific quasi-rents
vary across clients of a given auditor, consumers can be expected to develop
other quality surrogates in addition to auditor size.
One potential surrogate is the percentage of total audit fees dependent on
retaining any one client. For example, the Cohen Report (pp. 113-114) notes
that:
When one or a few large clients supply a significant portion of the total
fees of a public accounting firm, the firm will have greater difficulty in
maintaining its independence. The staff study of the Subcommittee on
Reports, Accounts and Management (the Metcalf Report), for example,
cites the case of a relatively small firm with a single client that
represented 30 percent of the firm's total fees in the year 1973. In the
celebrated Equity Funding case, that company represented more than 40
percent of the fees of the Wolfson, Weiner firm that audited the parent
company.
Strictly speaking, this statement is incorrect because a client could 'supply a
significant portion of the total fees of a public accounting firm' and future
client-specific quasi-rents be zero. However, when the percentage of total fees
dependent on one client is viewed as surrogate for the relative magnitude of
client-specific quasi-rents, this fee relationship also serves as a surrogate for
audit quality.
An interesting example of disclosure of the percentage of total fees
dependent on retaining one client is the 1977 annual report of Peat,
Marwick, Mitchell, which states that the single largest audit fee comprises
only ½ 9/0 of total revenues. Moreover, a requirement of the new SEC practice
section of the AICPA is that members of the section disclose the existence of
clients whose fees comprise more than five percent of total audit fees. The
Accountant's International Study Group (1976) recommends that auditors be
prevented from accepting clients whose fees are expected to exceed ten
percent of total income from clients.
When consumers use the percentage of total fees dependent on one client
as a quality surrogate, and this percentage is perceived to be 'high' for a
given auditor-client pair, the market expects auditor independence to be
reduced with respect to that client. This will affect the auditor through the
fees he is able to charge. Because of these costs of reduced independence,
auditors have incentives to devise arrangements which reduce the percentage
of the total fees observed to depend on retaining any one client. Large audit
firms are one potential response to these costs.
Large audit firms, however, are not the only potential response to costs of
reduced independence. Auditors can also increase perceived independence by
increasing their investment in collateral which is not client-specific. Of
course, in order to serve as a deterrent to auditor 'cheating', all collateral
must be auditor-specific. However, it need not be client-specific. For example,
it could be an established reputation for uniform quality audits or other
brand name-type collateral. 25 To the extent that brand name expenditures
are not dependent on retaining a particular client, they increase an auditor's
total collateral and therefore decrease the percentage of total quasi-rents
specific to any one client. Consumers are likely to view brand name
collateral as a substitute for client-specific collateral, i.e., consumers view
auditors with established reputations as having 'more to lose' from
misrepresentation.26
The client-specific collateral analyzed here, however, has an important
advantage over brand name collateral. When client-specific start-up costs are
viewed as an unavoidable (sunk) cost of producing audits, their use as
collateral may be less costly than incurring additional brand name-type
expenditures. This point is made by Klein and L
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Generalizations and alternative arrangementsThe general proposition that client-specific quasi-rents create a benefit toauditor size continues to hold when these quasi-rents vary across clients.However, another factor becomes important: the percentage of the auditor'stotal quasi-rent stream which is specific to any one client. In particular,clients for which client-specific quasi-rents are relatively large in a givenauditor's portfolio pose special independence problems not captured by theanalysis so far. When quasi-rents are not identical across clients, the variableof interest to consumers is the relationship between the value of an auditor'squasi-rents specific to a particular client and the value of the auditor's totalquasi-rent stream.When client-specific quasi-rents vary across clients, auditor size (asmeasured by the number of current clients) continue to serve as a surrogatefor audit quality because larger auditors possess greater total collateral.However, size alone does not inform consumers about the relationshipbetween the quasi-rents specific to one (potentially large) client and theauditor's total quasi-rent stream. Therefore, when client-specific quasi-rentsvary across clients of a given auditor, consumers can be expected to developother quality surrogates in addition to auditor size.One potential surrogate is the percentage of total audit fees dependent onretaining any one client. For example, the Cohen Report (pp. 113-114) notesthat:When one or a few large clients supply a significant portion of the totalfees of a public accounting firm, the firm will have greater difficulty inmaintaining its independence. The staff study of the Subcommittee onReports, Accounts and Management (the Metcalf Report), for example,cites the case of a relatively small firm with a single client thatrepresented 30 percent of the firm's total fees in the year 1973. In thecelebrated Equity Funding case, that company represented more than 40percent of the fees of the Wolfson, Weiner firm that audited the parentcompany.Strictly speaking, this statement is incorrect because a client could 'supply asignificant portion of the total fees of a public accounting firm' and futureclient-specific quasi-rents be zero. However, when the percentage of total feesdependent on one client is viewed as surrogate for the relative magnitude ofclient-specific quasi-rents, this fee relationship also serves as a surrogate foraudit quality.An interesting example of disclosure of the percentage of total feesdependent on retaining one client is the 1977 annual report of Peat,Marwick, Mitchell, which states that the single largest audit fee comprisesonly ½ 9/0 of total revenues. Moreover, a requirement of the new SEC practicesection of the AICPA is that members of the section disclose the existence ofclients whose fees comprise more than five percent of total audit fees. TheAccountant's International Study Group (1976) recommends that auditors beprevented from accepting clients whose fees are expected to exceed tenpercent of total income from clients.When consumers use the percentage of total fees dependent on one clientas a quality surrogate, and this percentage is perceived to be 'high' for agiven auditor-client pair, the market expects auditor independence to bereduced with respect to that client. This will affect the auditor through thefees he is able to charge. Because of these costs of reduced independence,auditors have incentives to devise arrangements which reduce the percentageof the total fees observed to depend on retaining any one client. Large auditfirms are one potential response to these costs.Large audit firms, however, are not the only potential response to costs ofreduced independence. Auditors can also increase perceived independence byincreasing their investment in collateral which is not client-specific. Ofcourse, in order to serve as a deterrent to auditor 'cheating', all collateralmust be auditor-specific. However, it need not be client-specific. For example,it could be an established reputation for uniform quality audits or otherbrand name-type collateral. 25 To the extent that brand name expendituresare not dependent on retaining a particular client, they increase an auditor'stotal collateral and therefore decrease the percentage of total quasi-rentsspecific to any one client. Consumers are likely to view brand namecollateral as a substitute for client-specific collateral, i.e., consumers viewauditors with established reputations as having 'more to lose' frommisrepresentation.26The client-specific collateral analyzed here, however, has an importantadvantage over brand name collateral. When client-specific start-up costs areviewed as an unavoidable (sunk) cost of producing audits, their use ascollateral may be less costly than incurring additional brand name-typeexpenditures. This point is made by Klein and L
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Generalisasi dan pengaturan alternatif
Proposisi umum yang-klien tertentu kuasi-sewa membuat manfaat bagi
auditor ukuran terus memegang pada saat kuasi-sewa bervariasi di seluruh klien.
Namun, faktor lain menjadi penting: persentase auditor
Total aliran sewa semu yang khusus untuk setiap satu klien. Secara khusus,
klien yang-klien tertentu quasi-sewa yang relatif besar dalam mengingat
portofolio auditor berpose masalah kemerdekaan khusus tidak ditangkap oleh
analisis sejauh ini. Ketika quasi-sewa tidak identik di klien, variabel
menarik bagi konsumen adalah hubungan antara nilai sebuah auditor
kuasi-sewa khusus untuk klien tertentu dan nilai total auditor
aliran sewa semu.
Ketika kuasi-klien tertentu -rents bervariasi di seluruh klien, ukuran auditor (seperti
diukur dengan jumlah klien saat ini) terus melayani sebagai pengganti
untuk kualitas audit karena auditor yang lebih besar memiliki agunan jumlah yang lebih besar.
Namun, ukuran saja tidak menginformasikan konsumen tentang hubungan
antara kuasi yang menyewakan khusus untuk satu (berpotensi besar) klien dan
jumlah aliran sewa semu auditor. Karena itu, ketika-klien tertentu kuasi-sewa
bervariasi di seluruh klien dari auditor diberikan, konsumen dapat diharapkan untuk mengembangkan
pengganti kualitas lain selain ukuran auditor.
Satu pengganti potensial adalah persentase dari total biaya audit tergantung pada
mempertahankan salah satu klien. Sebagai contoh, Laporan Cohen (. Pp 113-114) mencatat
bahwa:
Ketika satu atau beberapa klien besar menyediakan porsi yang signifikan dari total
biaya dari kantor akuntan publik, perusahaan akan mengalami kesulitan yang lebih besar dalam
mempertahankan kemerdekaan. Studi Staf Sub-komite untuk
Laporan, Account dan Manajemen (Laporan Metcalf), misalnya,
mengutip kasus sebuah perusahaan yang relatif kecil dengan klien tunggal yang
mewakili 30 persen dari total biaya perusahaan pada tahun 1973. Dalam
dirayakan kasus Pendanaan ekuitas, perusahaan yang mewakili lebih dari 40
persen dari biaya dari perusahaan Wolfson, Weiner yang diaudit induk
perusahaan.
Sebenarnya, pernyataan ini tidak benar karena klien bisa 'menyediakan
porsi yang signifikan dari total biaya dari akuntan publik perusahaan 'dan masa
depan-klien tertentu kuasi-sewa menjadi nol. Namun, ketika persentase total biaya
tergantung pada satu klien dipandang sebagai pengganti untuk besarnya
relatif-klien tertentu kuasi-sewa hubungan biaya ini juga berfungsi sebagai pengganti untuk
kualitas audit.
Contoh yang menarik dari pengungkapan persentase total Biaya
tergantung pada mempertahankan satu klien adalah laporan tahunan 1977 Gambut,
Marwick, Mitchell, yang menyatakan bahwa biaya audit tunggal terbesar terdiri
hanya ½ 9/0 dari total pendapatan. Selain itu, persyaratan dari praktek SEC baru
bagian dari AICPA adalah bahwa anggota bagian mengungkapkan keberadaan
klien yang biaya terdiri lebih dari lima persen dari total biaya audit. The
Akuntan Internasional Study Group (1976) merekomendasikan bahwa auditor harus
dicegah dari menerima klien yang biaya diperkirakan melebihi sepuluh
persen dari total pendapatan dari klien.
Ketika konsumen menggunakan persentase total biaya tergantung pada satu klien
sebagai pengganti kualitas, dan persentase ini yang dianggap 'tinggi' untuk
pasangan auditor-klien tertentu, pasar mengharapkan independensi auditor harus
dikurangi sehubungan dengan klien. Ini akan mempengaruhi auditor melalui
biaya ia mampu mengisi. Karena biaya ini berkurang kemerdekaan,
auditor memiliki insentif untuk menyusun pengaturan yang mengurangi persentase
dari total biaya diamati bergantung pada mempertahankan salah satu klien. Audit besar
perusahaan adalah salah satu respon potensi untuk biaya-biaya tersebut.
Perusahaan audit besar, bagaimanapun, adalah bukan satu-satunya respon potensi untuk biaya
berkurang kemerdekaan. Auditor juga dapat meningkatkan kemandirian dirasakan oleh
meningkatkan investasi mereka di agunan yang tidak-klien tertentu. Tentu
saja, dalam rangka untuk melayani sebagai pencegah untuk auditor 'kecurangan', semua jaminan
harus-auditor spesifik. Namun, tidak perlu-klien tertentu. Misalnya,
bisa jadi reputasi yang didirikan untuk audit kualitas seragam atau lainnya
merek nama-jenis agunan. 25 Sejauh pengeluaran nama merek
tidak tergantung pada mempertahankan klien tertentu, mereka meningkatkan sebuah auditor
jumlah agunan dan karena itu menurunkan persentase total kuasi-sewa
khusus untuk salah satu klien. Konsumen cenderung melihat nama merek
jaminan sebagai pengganti agunan-klien tertentu, yaitu, konsumen melihat
auditor dengan reputasi didirikan sebagai memiliki 'lebih banyak kehilangan' dari
misrepresentation.26
agunan-klien tertentu yang dianalisis di sini, bagaimanapun, memiliki penting
keuntungan lebih nama merek agunan. Ketika biaya start-up-klien tertentu
dipandang sebagai (tenggelam) biaya tidak dapat dihindari menghasilkan audit, menggunakan mereka sebagai
agunan mungkin lebih murah daripada menimbulkan merek nama-jenis tambahan
pengeluaran. Hal ini dibuat oleh Klein dan L
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