This review of the evidence for ear

This review of the evidence for early agriculture in New Guinea supported by new data from Kuk Swamp demonstrates that cultivation had begun there by at least 6950-6440 cal BP and probably much earlier. Contrary to previous ideas, the first farming in New Guinea was not owed to South-East Asia, but emerged independently in the Highlands. Indeed plants such as the banana were probably first domesticated in New Guinea and later diffused into the Asian continent.
Recent multi-disciplinary investigation shave filled out previous,largely speculative
chronologies of prehistoric plane exploitation(Harri s1995)and confirm previous
interpretations that agriculture arose independently in New Guinea (Table3.New multidisciplinary investigation sat Kuk have advanced previous interpretations of prehistoric plant
exploitation in the Highlands of New Guinea in two significant ways.

First, multi-disciplinary lines of evidence(including archaeological,archaeobotanical,
palaeo ecological and stratigraphic)show that agriculture was practiced in the Upper Wahgi
Valley byat least 6950-6440 cal BP and probably much earlier. The evidence for earlier plant
exploitation practice sat Kuki sin sufficientrobe definitive of agriculture,as previously claimed (Golson1977a:613-5,1991a;Golson&Hughes1980;Hope&GoLson1995:824). The timing of the emergence of agriculture in the Highlands of New Guinea requires clarification
through greater interpretative resolution of the Phase 1 record at Kuk and the excavation of
additional sites with evidence of early Holocene plant exploitation. Second, agriculture may have emerged in the Highlands of New Guinea as opposed to the lowlands. Golson suggested that agriculture originated in rhelowlands and spreadwiih expand in g populations into the Highlands as climate same liorated at the beginning of the Holocene (Golson1991b:88-9;Hope&Golson1995:827-8). It is argued here that agriculture emerged from broad-spectrum plant exploitation practices in the Highlands which had enabled permanent occupation of the interior during the Lare Pleistocene.Glimatic (Late Pleistocene) and environmental(early tomid Holocene) for cing of existing plant exploitation practices ledr or hedeveiopment of more intervention is tand extensive strategies in the Highlands. Although the specific mechanisms remain uncertain,anincreasing focus 852 77 mDenham.SimonHaberle&CarolLentfer
on major sources of starch,including Colocasiarare and Eumusabananas, were central to the
emergence ofa griculture in the Highlands. Aswirha nearlier debate concerning arboriculture (compareKirch1989toSwadlingf frt/.
1991 and Yen 1996), agriculture in New Guinea was traditionally view edas being of South east
Asian origin(e.g.Sauer1952).The archaeological, archaeobotanical and palaeoecological
fmdingsat Kuk corroboratephyto geographic and genetic interpretations of independent
plant domestication in Melanesia and demonstrate that agriculture emerged in New Guinea
independently of any South-east Asian influence by at least 6950-6440calBP. Indeed,the
early Holocene Eumusa section banana sat Kuk solidify previous interpretations for the early
diffusion of domesticated plants from New Guinea and their subsequent influence on the
development of agriculture in Southeast Asia(DeLanghe&deMaret1999:378-82)and
Africa(Mbidaetal.2000,2001).Such fmdings open up new possibilities for interaction
between mainland South east Asia and New Guinea during the early and mid-Holocene(i.e.
prior ro Auscronesian dispersal into Indo-Malaysia and Melanesia)and require us to rethink
the origin sandspread of agriculture in the Pacific, South east Asia and beyond.

new evidence and revised interpretations of early agriculture in highland new guinea

Kuk Swamp is an archaeological site in New Guinea, that lies in the Wahgi Valley. It is the result of a former lake basin, filled by an alluvial fan or deposits of water-transported material. The Kuk creek must flow through the entirety of the fan to a catchment in the lower hills of the south region. Early channels that were created flowed this water past the reach of the fan. If these channels were to be blocked, as evidence suggests, it would turn into a swamp, diverting the water into smaller distributary channels. Evidence for early agricultural drainage systems was found here, beginning about 9,000 years ago. Features such as pits, postholes and runnels have been found at the site, which provide evidence for early agriculture. Such features are consistent with planting, digging and tethering of plants. Evidence has been found of irrigation draining ditches dating back to 9,000 years ago, with a number of plants including taro grown, at what would have been the edge of its cultivable limit in the highlands. These ditches can be divided into three types: major disposal channels, large field ditches, and small field ditches. The major disposal channels were built to divert water from the fan flowing south and direct them toward the northeast areas. The large and small field ditches are more uniform and surround the perimeter of the planting areas and then meet up with the major disposal channels. During this time, the people of Kuk Swamp transformed their landscape into an anthropogenic grassland suitable for agriculture.

During archaeological construction of the drainage channels artefacts were discovered including wooden digging sticks, a grindstone, and other small items. The ditches themselves were cleaned out and a small trench was dug to study the different layers of clay that have been used to construct the ditches. Different layers of clay used suggests and confirms different construction by previous people.

From 6,900 - 6,400 years ago further evidence has been found for the cultivation of bananas and sugar cane. Archaeologists have used archaeobotanical evidence to confirm the cultivation of bananas. Many banana phytoliths have been found in the cultivation plots of Kuk Swamp. Since bananas do not produce phytoliths in the same quantity and frequency as grass and other plants, researchers have been able to conclude that the abundance of banana phytoliths found in a managed grassed landscape between 6950 and 6550 years ago suggests deliberate planting.[1] The bananas grown at Kuk Swamp were Eumusa bananas, which stemmed the most significant and largest group of banana domesticates. This makes Kuk Swamp one of the earliest sites for the development of agriculture in the world.

In 2008, Kuk Swamp was listed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.

Once considered a "Neolithic backwater" by archaeologists, Papua New Guinea is emerging as one of the handful of places on Earth where agricultural practices developed independently from other cultures.

The evidence reported June 19 on the Science Express website by Tim Denham, an archaeologist at Flinders University in Adelaide, Australia, and colleagues, may put an end to a long-standing debate on the origin of agriculture in the swampy highlands on the island nation.

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"People were definitely exploiting plants, including taro, at Kuk Swamp approximately 10,000 calendar years before present," said Denham. "There is then-evidence of banana cultivation from 6,950 to 6,440 calendar years before present."

Taro (Colcasia esculenta) is a tuber with edible leaves and starchy roots. It remains a staple in the Papua New Guinean diet today.

Prior to this discovery, many scientists regarded Papua New Guineans as passive recipients of domesticated plants and animals from Southeast Asia. But the dates for the rise of agriculture documented by Denham and colleagues predate the earliest known Southeast Asian influence by about 3,000 years.

Katharina Neumann, an archaeobotanist at Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität in Frankfurt, Germany, writes in a related Science perspective that "only a few regions were geographically suited to become the homelands of full agricultural systems. New Guinea seems to have been one of them."

Re-examination

Denham and colleagues base their conclusions about the gradual rise of Agriculture in Papua New Guinea on a re-examination of the Kuk Swamp excavation site in the Wahgi Valley.

The site was first investigated in 1966 with subsequent excavations in the 1970s, but the details of the finds were never fully published and the evidence for agricultural practices were inconclusive, said Denham.

"The most serious problem was the absence of any remains of the plants which had been hypothetically exploited," said Neumann. "This is for a large part due to preservation, like in other humid, tropical regions."

But Denham and colleagues were able to find plant residues in the soils and on stone tools. According to the analysis of these residues, the researchers conclude that the Papua New Guineans were indeed exploiting taro and banana.

The team also dated features consistent with the planting, digging, and tethering of plants and localized drainage systems to 10,000 years ago. Mounds constructed to plant water-intolerant plants such as bananas, sugarcane, and yams are dated to about 6,500 years ago.

Neumann said "careful documentation of the archaeological features with a large number of radiocarbon dates and recovery and identification of microscopic plant remains" allowed Denham and colleagues to document the gradual rise of agriculture in Papua New Guinea.

Denham described the agricultural setting of the Wahgi Valley at approximately 6,500 years ago as a valley floor carpeted in grasslands that were periodically burnt and the Kuk site itself as cleared plots perched on a wetland edge. On mounds constructed in the plots grew bananas, sugar cane, and yams. Taro would have filled the wetter ground between the mounds.

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Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 1:

Review ini bukti awal pertanian di New Guinea didukung oleh data baru dari rawa-rawa Kuk menunjukkan bahwa budidaya telah dimulai di sana oleh setidaknya 6950-6440 cal BP dan mungkin banyak sebelumnya. Bertentangan dengan ide-ide sebelumnya, pertanian pertama di New Guinea tidak berutang untuk Asia Tenggara, tetapi muncul secara mandiri di dataran tinggi. Memang tanaman seperti pisang yang mungkin pertama dijinakkan di New Guinea dan kemudian menyebar ke benua Asia.Hari multi-disiplin penyelidikan mencukur diisi sebelumnya, sebagian besar spekulatifKronologi dari prasejarah pesawat eksploitasi (Harri s1995) dan mengkonfirmasi sebelumnyainterpretasi yang pertanian muncul secara mandiri di New Guinea (Table3.New multidisiplin penyelidikan duduk Kuk telah maju sebelumnya interpretasi prasejarah tanamaneksploitasi di dataran tinggi Papua dalam dua cara yang signifikan.Baris pertama, multi-disiplin bukti (termasuk arkeologi, archaeobotanical,Tampilkan palaeo ekologi dan stratigrafi) bahwa pertanian dipraktekkan di atas WahgiValley byat 6950-6440 setidaknya cal BP dan mungkin banyak sebelumnya. Bukti awal tanamaneksploitasi praktek duduk Kuki dosa sufficientrobe definitif pertanian, seperti sebelumnya mengklaim (Golson1977a:613-5, 1991a;Golson & Hughes1980;Harapan & GoLson1995:824). Waktu munculnya pertanian di Highlands Nugini memerlukan klarifikasimelalui resolusi interpretatif lebih besar dari tahap 1 catatan Kuk dan penggaliansitus dengan bukti Holosen awal tanaman eksploitasi. Kedua, pertanian telah muncul di dataran tinggi Papua sebagai lawan dari dataran rendah. Golson menyarankan bahwa pertanian yang berasal dari rhelowlands dan spreadwiih memperluas dalam populasi g ke dataran tinggi sebagai iklim sama liorated pada awal Holocene (Golson1991b:88-9;Harapan & Golson1995:827-8). Hal ini berpendapat di sini bahwa pertanian muncul dari praktek-praktek eksploitasi spektrum luas tanaman di dataran tinggi yang telah memungkinkan permanen pekerjaan interior selama Lare Pleistocene.Glimatic (akhir Pleistosen) dan lingkungan (awal tomid Holosen) untuk cing ada tanaman eksploitasi praktek ledr atau hedeveiopment lain intervensi adalah strategi luas tand di dataran tinggi. Meskipun mekanisme spesifik tetap tidak menentu, anincreasing fokus 852 77 mDenham.SimonHaberle & CarolLentferpada sumber-sumber utama Pati, termasuk Colocasiarare dan Eumusabananas, sangat sentralmunculnya ofa griculture di dataran tinggi. Aswirha nearlier perdebatan mengenai arboriculture (compareKirch1989toSwadlingf frt /.1991 dan Yen 1996), pertanian di Nugini tradisional Lihat edas menjadi Selatan TimurAsia origin(e.g.Sauer1952).Arkeologi, archaeobotanical dan palaeoecologicalfmdingsat Kuk corroboratephyto geografis dan genetik interpretasi independentanaman domestikasi di Melanesia dan menunjukkan bahwa pertanian muncul di New GuineaTerlepas dari Asia Tenggara apapun mempengaruhi dengan setidaknya 6950-6440calBP. Memang,pisang bagian Eumusa Holosen awal duduk Kuk memantapkan interpretasi sebelumnya untuk awalDifusi peliharaan tanaman dari Papua dan pengaruh mereka berikutnya padapengembangan pertanian di Tenggara Asia(DeLanghe&deMaret1999:378-82) danAfrica(Mbidaetal.2000,2001).Fmdings demikian membuka kemungkinan-kemungkinan baru untuk interaksiantara daratan Asia Tenggara dan Nugini selama awal dan pertengahan Holosen (yaitusebelumnya ro Auscronesian penyebaran ke Indo-Malaysia dan Melanesia) dan memerlukan kita untuk memikirkan kembaliasal sandspread pertanian di Pasifik, Asia Tenggara dan seterusnya.bukti baru dan direvisi interpretasi awal pertanian di dataran tinggi PapuaKuk rawa adalah sebuah situs arkeologi di Nugini, yang terletak di lembah Wahgi. Ini adalah hasil dari bekas Danau baskom, diisi oleh alluvial fan atau deposito bahan air-diangkut. Sungai Kuk harus mengalir melalui keseluruhan kipas untuk tangkapan di perbukitan rendah selatan wilayah. Awal saluran yang diciptakan mengalir air ini melewati jangkauan kipas angin. Jika saluran ini diblokir, sebagai bukti menunjukkan, itu akan berubah menjadi satu rawa, mengalihkan air ke dalam saluran distributary kecil. Bukti awal sistem drainase pertanian ditemukan di sini, mulai sekitar 9.000 tahun yang lalu. Fitur seperti lubang, postholes dan runnels telah ditemukan di situs, yang memberikan bukti untuk pertanian. Fitur konsisten dengan penanaman, menggali dan penarikan tanaman. Bukti telah ditemukan irigasi pengeringan parit-parit yang dating kembali ke 9,000 tahun lalu, dengan sejumlah tanaman termasuk taro tumbuh, pada apa yang akan menjadi tepi batas cultivable di dataran tinggi. Parit ini dapat dibagi menjadi tiga jenis: utama saluran pembuangan, parit-parit lapangan besar dan kecil bidang parit. Saluran pembuangan utama dibangun untuk mengalihkan air dari kipas mengalir Selatan dan mengarahkan mereka menuju daerah timur laut. Parit-parit besar dan kecil bidang lebih seragam dan mengelilingi perimeter daerah penanaman dan kemudian bertemu dengan saluran pembuangan utama. Selama waktu ini, orang-orang dari rawa-rawa Kuk mengubah lanskap mereka menjadi padang rumput antropogenik yang cocok untuk pertanian.Selama konstruksi arkeologi saluran drainase artefak ditemukan termasuk tongkat kayu menggali, gerinda, dan item kecil lainnya. Parit-parit sendiri dibersihkan dan kecil parit digali untuk mempelajari berbagai lapisan tanah liat yang telah digunakan untuk membangun parit. Lapisan yang berbeda dari tanah liat yang digunakan menunjukkan dan mengesahkan konstruksi yang berbeda oleh orang-orang yang sebelumnya.Dari 6,900-6,400 tahun yang lalu lebih lanjut bukti telah ditemukan untuk budidaya tanaman pisang dan gula tebu. Arkeolog telah menggunakan archaeobotanical bukti untuk mengkonfirmasi budidaya pisang. Banyak pisang phytoliths telah ditemukan di plot budidaya Kuk rawa. Karena pisang tidak menghasilkan phytoliths dalam jumlah yang sama dan frekuensi sebagai rumput dan tanaman lainnya, para peneliti telah mampu menyimpulkan bahwa kelimpahan pisang phytoliths ditemukan di dikelola rumput antara 6950 dan 6550 tahun lalu menunjukkan penanaman disengaja.[1] pisang yang tumbuh di rawa-rawa Kuk yang Eumusa pisang, yang berasal yang paling penting dan terbesar yang domesticates oleh sekelompok pisang. Hal ini membuat rawa Kuk salah satu situs paling awal untuk pengembangan pertanian di dunia.Pada tahun 2008, rawa-rawa Kuk ini terdaftar sebagai situs warisan dunia oleh UNESCO.Setelah dianggap sebagai "daerah terpencil Neolitik" oleh arkeolog, Papua Nugini yang muncul sebagai salah satu dari segelintir tempat di bumi di mana praktek-praktek pertanian dikembangkan secara mandiri dari budaya lain.Bukti-bukti yang dilaporkan 19 Juni pada situs ilmu Express oleh Tim Denham, seorang arkeolog di Flinders University di Adelaide, Australia, dan rekan, mungkin mengakhiri perdebatan panjang tentang asal-usul pertanian di dataran rawa di Pulau bangsa._ Printer FriendlyEmail ke temanApa ini? BERBAGIDiggStumbleUponRedditTERKAITMenyimpan kentang dalam kelahiran Andes yangKanibalisme Normal untuk awal manusia?"Orang yang benar-benar memanfaatkan tanaman, termasuk taro, di rawa-rawa Kuk 10.000 tahun kalender sebelum saat ini," kata Denham. "Ada kemudian-bukti pisang budidaya dari 6,950 untuk 6,440 kalender tahun sebelum sekarang."Taro (Colcasia esculenta) adalah sebuah umbi dengan daun yang dapat dimakan dan akar tepung. Pokok dalam diet Papua New Guinea tetap hari ini.Sebelum penemuan ini, banyak ilmuwan dianggap Papua New Guinea sebagai pasif menerima peliharaan tanaman dan hewan dari Asia Tenggara. Tetapi tanggal munculnya pertanian yang didokumentasikan oleh Denham dan rekan mendahului terawal diketahui Southeast Asia pengaruh oleh sekitar 3.000 tahun.Katharina Neumann, archaeobotanist di Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität di Frankfurt, Jerman, menulis dalam perspektif ilmu terkait bahwa "hanya beberapa wilayah yang geografis cocok menjadi tanah air sistem penuh pertanian. Nugini tampaknya telah salah satu dari mereka."Pemeriksaan ulangDenham dan rekan dasar kesimpulan mereka tentang kebangkitan bertahap pertanian di Papua New Guinea pada pemeriksaan ulang situs penggalian Kuk rawa di lembah Wahgi.Situs itu pertama diselidiki pada tahun 1966 dengan penggalian berikutnya pada tahun 1970, tetapi rincian menemukan pernah sepenuhnya diterbitkan dan bukti untuk praktek-praktek pertanian yang dapat disimpulkan, kata Denham."Masalah yang paling serius adalah tidak adanya setiap sisa-sisa tanaman yang telah dieksploitasi telah hipotetis," kata Neumann. "Ini adalah sebagian besar karena pelestarian, seperti di daerah tropis yang lembap lain."Tapi Denham dan kolega dapat menemukan residu tanaman di tanah dan di alat batu. Berdasarkan analisis dari residu ini, para peneliti menyimpulkan bahwa Papua New Guinea yang memang mengeksploitasi taro dan pisang.Tim juga tanggal fitur konsisten dengan penanaman, menggali dan penarikan tanaman dan sistem drainase lokal sampai 10.000 tahun lalu. Gundukan dibangun untuk menanam tanaman toleran air seperti pisang, tebu, dan ubi jalar bertarikh sekitar 6.500 tahun yang lalu.Neumann mengatakan "hati-hati dokumentasi fitur arkeologi dengan sejumlah besar penanggalan tanggal dan pemulihan" dan identifikasi mikroskopis tanaman tetap diperbolehkan Denham dan kolega untuk mendokumentasikan bertahap munculnya pertanian di Papua Nugini.Denham dijelaskan pengaturan pertanian dari lembah Wahgi di sekitar 6.500 tahun yang lalu sebagai lembah lantai berkarpet di padang rumput yang dibakar secara berkala dan situs Kuk itu sendiri sebagai dibersihkan plot yang bertengger di atas tepi lahan basah. Pada gundukan dibangun di plot tumbuh pisang, gula tebu dan ubi. Taro akan diisi tanah basah antara gundukan._ Printer FriendlyEmail ke temanApa ini? BERBAGIDiggStumbleUponRedditTERKAIT