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Culture and Psychiatric DiagnosesIn assessing abnormal behavior, psychologists seek to classify abnormal behaviors into categories—diagnoses—that are both reliable and valid. Reliability, as you will recall, has to do with the degree to which the same diagnoses would be made consistently over time and by different clinicians; validity refers to the degree to which the diagnosis accurately portrays the clinical disorder it is sup- posed to describe.Because culture exerts some degree of influence on the creation, mainte- nance, and definition of abnormal behaviors, cross-cultural issues arise con- cerning the reliability and validity of diagnoses, and even of the diagnostic cat- egories used. If all abnormal behaviors were entirely etic in their expression and presentation—that is, entirely the same across cultures—then creating reliable and valid diagnostic categories would not be a problem. But just as individuals differ in their presentation of abnormality, cultures also vary; indeed, some culture-bound syndromes appear to be limited to only one or a few cultures. Thus, developing diagnostic systems and classifications that can be reliably and validly used across cultures around the world, or across different cultural groups within a single country, becomes a challenge.One of the most widely used systems of classification is the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). The DSM, originally published in 1952, has undergone several major revisions and is now in its fourth edition (DSM-IV). Some of the changes from DSM-III to DSM-IV represent the field’s response to heavy criticism by crosscultural psychiatrists.A large number of disorders described in the manual were different or simply did not exist in societies and cultures beyond the Western world. It was repeatedly noted that, after all, 80% of the world population does not belong to the Western cultural sphere, and that the manual could lose credibility, its interna- tional popularity notwithstanding.. . .Diagnosis does not mean to drive an individual into a particular slot; ethnicity, diversity, and pluralism should be duly recognized as politically importantFor culture to be built into the DSM-IV, diagnosticians always should be re- minded that their task is essentially cultural: The patient and the clinician each brings his or her own culture, and the clinician–patient encounter realizes cul- ture. (Alarcon, 1995, pp. 452, 455)To address these criticisms, several modifications were made to the DSM- IV to increase its cultural sensitivity: (1) incorporating information on how the clinical manifestations of the disorders can vary by culture; (2) including 25 culture-bound syndromes in an appendix (some of which have been mentioned in this chapter); and (3) adding guidelines for in-depth assessment of the individual’s cultural background, including cultural expressions of the indi- vidual’s disorder, cultural factors related to psychosocial functioning in the in- dividual’s specific cultural context, and cultural differences between the clinician and the individual (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). Thus, the DSM-IV has taken considerable steps to incorporate the role of culture in the expression and reliable classification of psychological disorders. However, the DSM-IV does not go so far as to require an assessment of cultural elements that may be necessary to recognize and classify a culture-bound syndrome (Paniagua, 2000). Thus, challenges to the DSM-IV remain, especially concern- ing its difficulty in classifying culture-bound syndromes.Another well-known and often used classification system is the International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Edition (ICD-10). Its section on mental health includes 100 major diagnostic categories encompassing 329 individual clinical classifications. It is intended to be descriptive and atheoretical. Unfortunately, reviews of ICD-10 (for example, Alarcon, 1995) have suggested that it fails to recognize the importance of culture in influencing the expression and presentation of disorder.To address the problem of the lack of cultural considerations in the assessment of mental disorders, local diagnostic systems have been created. The Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders (CCMD), for example, has been heavily influenced by the DSM-IV and ICD-10 but has culture-specific features that do not exist in the international systems. The most recent edition, the CCMD-3, was revised in 2001. This manual includes disorders distinctive to Chinese cul- ture (such as the qigong-induced mental disorder) and excludes irrelevant disorders (such as sibling rivalry, because of the one-child policy). In the mid- 1980s, three African psychiatrists developed a handbook for North African practitioners (Douki, Moussaoui, & Kacha, 1987). Surely, we will see more and more indigenously created manuals to classify mental disorders across cultures. Having a reliable and valid classification system of diagnoses would be a major plus for all health professionals and the people they seek to help. The DSM-IV seems to have made major strides toward creating such a system. Still, work in this area is continually evolving, and we are sure to see future changes in this and other classification systems. Hopefully, those changes will be informed by meaningful and relevant cross-cultural research. One such attempt to develop more culturally sensitive, valid, and reliable diagnoses can be found in the research journal Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, which devotes a
special “Clinical Cases Section” to case studies of individuals within their specific cultural context (Tanaka-Matsumi, 2001). The case narratives include a clinical case history, cultural formulation, cultural identity, cultural explanation of the illness, cultural factors related to psychosocial environment and lev- els of functioning, cultural elements of the clinician–patient relationship, and overall cultural assessment. Attempts such as this should benefit the develop- ment of more culturally valid classification manuals of disorders.
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