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First, however, it is worth recalling briefly the Foucauldian roots of ANT, which have been neglected as a resource for thinking about media. Foucault is important because he takes us back to the properties of discourse - not ignoring its material base in associations and interactions with objects, but in an analysis not restricted to the mere fact of those associations. Foucault was not, any more than Calion and Latour, focusing on media, but in 'The Order of Discourse' (1980)- his 1970 inaugural lecture at the College de France- he discusses some very general 'procedures' which 'permit the control of discourse'.It is a matter of building on the principles Foucault establishes. He talks, for example, of the 'rarefaction of speaking subjects' (1980: 61). Some forms of this principle are less common (the intense ritualisation of certain speech settings, certain restricted 'societies of discourse'). But Foucault argues that, even in an apparent era of open discourse, there are hidden restrictions built into discourse's institutionalisation. In one sense Foucault's insights have already been adopted by a whole generation of discourse analysis (for example, Fairclough 1995) but there is still something exhilarating in Foucault's insistence on a materialist analysis of discourse, that undercuts the rhetoric of discourses themselves and explores the constraints built into various media discourses. By the rarefaction of speaking subjects, Foucault makes clear, he means not just the literal exclu sion of particular people from speaking but also 'the gestures, behaviour, circumstances, and the whole set of signs which must accompany discourse' (1980: 62). There is more than enough here to provide a provocative starting point for analysing the gestural universe of celebrity culture.And crucially (unlike ANT) Foucault develops his materialism into closeattention to the patterns of discourse itself. 'Discourse analysis understood like this,' he writes, 'does not reveal the universality of a meaning, but brings to light the action of imposed scarcity' (1980: 73, added emphasis): that is, the scarcities, or limiting rules, that structure the surface of discourse. Such scarcity, working at the level of the categories and exclusions from which a universalising discourse is built, can be uncovered not by a generous reading of the text, but only by an investigation of its conditions of possibility. What better advice for deconstructing the mediated rhetorics of nation, society, community, 'the free world', and so on?
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