(Weston, Chung and Hoag 1990), can

(Weston, Chung and Hoag 1990), can have at least two ben¬eficial effects. The first is increased efficiency of individual workers or worker groups. Experience curves, an extension of learning curves, are the result of applying the learning curve principle to all value-added costs rather than to just production and labor costs.14 The presence of experience ef¬fects (the average total cost per unit, measured in constant current declining by a constant percentage with every dou¬bling of cumulative experience) have been documented in the context of both equipment-intensive service industries such as telecommunications and electric power utilities and people-intensive service industries such as life insurance (see Abell and Hammond 1980; Boston Consulting Group 1972).
A second aspect of organizational learning is team ef-fort. As members of an organization work together over a pe¬riod of time, the Williamson principle can take effect—that is, an organization may realize economies of information in¬terchange through common training and experience, re¬peated interpersonal interactions, and the possible develop¬ment of a compact code ( Williamson 1971,1975). In other words, inside the organization, information flows more effi¬ciently and transaction costs are reduced, and the firm be¬comes more efficient as experience is gained. Furthermore, firms, by changing task designs to form self-managed cross-functional and cross-trained service groups, could (1) im¬prove the quality of service provided by controlling vari¬ance at source (Pasmore 1988), (2) improve the flexibility of the organization by empowering teams to respond to spe¬cific consumer requests (Tansik 1990), and (3) blend capa¬bilities to solve complicated problems spanning several func¬tional areas speedily and effectively. Enhanced perfor¬mance resulting from employing teams has been docu¬mented in a number of empirical research studies (c.f. Johnson et al. 1981).
Organizational learning or expertise can be a source of competitive advantage only when the (1) learning is tacit and not observable in use and (2) underlying knowledge is complex (Winter 1987). Competitors free riding on a firm's learning and expertise is more difficult under these condi-tions, as well as when few people are privy to the informa-tion and employee mobility is low. However, the char-acteristics of various service industries do not appear to mod¬erate the role of organizational expertise as a source of com¬petitive advantage.
Information Technology15
Information technology (IT) refers to the collective means of assembling and electronically storing, transmitting, pro-cessing, and retrieving words, numbers, images, and sounds (Gerstein 1987, p. 5). IT's importance as a source of SCA stems from its potential to impact the transformation of a service firm's value chain (see Porter 1990). IT can aid
14The experience curve doctrine has been criticized for lacking a sound theoretical base. It has been pointed out that it treats a possible effect of achieving a cost advantage (share building) as a cause and what is actually a possible contributing cause of share building (achieving a cost advan¬tage) as an effect (Alberts 1989).
"Because several studies published during the last ten years provide ex-cellent insights into the importance of IT as a source of competitive advan¬tage (cf. Benjamin et al. 1984; Cash and Konsynski 1985; demons and Row 1987; Glazer 1991; Little 1990; Porter and Millar 1985; and Weill 1992), only a few key issues are highlighted in this section.

in attaining an SCA by (1) providing companies new ways to outperform rivals, through lowering costs and/or enhanc-ing differentiation; (2) building barriers to entry, building switching costs, and sometimes completely changing the basis of competition; and (3) spawning entirely new busi-nesses (Porter and Millar 1985). For example, investments in IT allow a business to achieve a differentiation advan-tage by securing relationships through improved service quality and enhancing its ability to quickly respond to mar-ket shifts. Cases in point: A large medical supply company provides on-line order entry terminals and inventory manage¬ment software for its customers and successfully achieves a competitive differentiation advantage and creates switching costs, thereby reducing buyer power. As customers' sys¬tems are integrated with those of suppliers, it becomes more difficult for customers to order from a competitor. Be¬cause changing suppliers would entail testing, implementa¬tion, and retraining costs, customers exhibit an inclination to remain loyal to their current suppliers. The more sophis¬ticated the ordering system, the less the buyers' power to switch. The Limited, a major retail chain, reportedly is able to respond four times faster than its competition to shifts in customers' preferences by monitoring customer preferences on a daily basis, and transmitting this information to produc¬tion plants through satellite communication systems (Achrol 1991). Additional insights into the potential for ex¬ploiting IT to achieve a sustainable competitive advantage across a broad spectrum of service industries are provided by the case histories summarized in Table 1.
Discussion
The managerial implications presented in this section are or¬ganized around six themes:
1. A firm's skills and resources constitute potential sources of
competitive advantage only if they offer benefits desired by
customers. As Day and Wensley (1988) point out, assess¬
ment of opportunities for competitive advantage must re¬
volve around the analysis of customer benefits. In the ab¬
sence of such analysis, a Firm's attempts to leverage its
skills and resources into positional advantages are likely to
prove ineffective. Case in point:
In the market for electronic components and calcula-tors, Texas Instruments (TI) successfully exploited scale effects and experience effects to lower costs, and market the product at a low price. It attempted to pursue a similar strategy with digital watches. However, customers did not view low price as a key buying criterion in the purchase of watches. Fea¬tures and appearance were viewed as more impor¬tant. TTs pursuit of a cost leadership strategy in the marketing of digital watches was ineffective, ulti¬mately leading to its withdrawal from the business.
2. The attainment of SCA is not an end in itself, but a means
to an end, namely superior long-term financial perfor¬
mance. A corporation is not in business just to achieve an
SCA over its competitors, but to create wealth for its share¬
holders. Actions that contribute to SCA but detract from cre¬
ating shareholder wealth can be good strategy in the com¬
petitive sense, but bad strategy for the corporation (Coyne
1985). Case in point:
Fruhan (1972) illustrates the economics of capacity competition in the context of an airline route served by two carriers, in which the dominant carrier, by
Sustainable Competitive Advantage / 93

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Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 1:

(Weston, Chung dan Hoag 1990), dapat memiliki setidaknya dua efek ben¬eficial. Yang pertama adalah peningkatan efisiensi pekerja individu atau kelompok pekerja. Pengalaman kurva, perpanjangan dari kurva belajar, adalah hasil dari menerapkan prinsip kurva belajar untuk semua nilai tambah biaya dibandingkan hanya produksi dan tenaga kerja costs.14 kehadiran pengalaman ef¬fects (rata-rata total biaya per unit, diukur dalam konstan saat ini menurun dalam persentase konstan dengan setiap dou¬bling kumulatif pengalaman) telah didokumentasikan dalam konteks kedua layanan peralatan-intensif industri seperti telekomunikasi dan utilitas listrik dan industri jasa orang-intensif seperti asuransi jiwa (Lihat Abell dan Hammond 1980; Boston Consulting Group 1972).A second aspect of organizational learning is team ef-fort. As members of an organization work together over a pe¬riod of time, the Williamson principle can take effect—that is, an organization may realize economies of information in¬terchange through common training and experience, re¬peated interpersonal interactions, and the possible develop¬ment of a compact code ( Williamson 1971,1975). In other words, inside the organization, information flows more effi¬ciently and transaction costs are reduced, and the firm be¬comes more efficient as experience is gained. Furthermore, firms, by changing task designs to form self-managed cross-functional and cross-trained service groups, could (1) im¬prove the quality of service provided by controlling vari¬ance at source (Pasmore 1988), (2) improve the flexibility of the organization by empowering teams to respond to spe¬cific consumer requests (Tansik 1990), and (3) blend capa¬bilities to solve complicated problems spanning several func¬tional areas speedily and effectively. Enhanced perfor¬mance resulting from employing teams has been docu¬mented in a number of empirical research studies (c.f. Johnson et al. 1981).Organizational learning or expertise can be a source of competitive advantage only when the (1) learning is tacit and not observable in use and (2) underlying knowledge is complex (Winter 1987). Competitors free riding on a firm's learning and expertise is more difficult under these condi-tions, as well as when few people are privy to the informa-tion and employee mobility is low. However, the char-acteristics of various service industries do not appear to mod¬erate the role of organizational expertise as a source of com¬petitive advantage.Information Technology15Information technology (IT) refers to the collective means of assembling and electronically storing, transmitting, pro-cessing, and retrieving words, numbers, images, and sounds (Gerstein 1987, p. 5). IT's importance as a source of SCA stems from its potential to impact the transformation of a service firm's value chain (see Porter 1990). IT can aid14The experience curve doctrine has been criticized for lacking a sound theoretical base. It has been pointed out that it treats a possible effect of achieving a cost advantage (share building) as a cause and what is actually a possible contributing cause of share building (achieving a cost advan¬tage) as an effect (Alberts 1989)."Because several studies published during the last ten years provide ex-cellent insights into the importance of IT as a source of competitive advan¬tage (cf. Benjamin et al. 1984; Cash and Konsynski 1985; demons and Row 1987; Glazer 1991; Little 1990; Porter and Millar 1985; and Weill 1992), only a few key issues are highlighted in this section. in attaining an SCA by (1) providing companies new ways to outperform rivals, through lowering costs and/or enhanc-ing differentiation; (2) building barriers to entry, building switching costs, and sometimes completely changing the basis of competition; and (3) spawning entirely new busi-nesses (Porter and Millar 1985). For example, investments in IT allow a business to achieve a differentiation advan-tage by securing relationships through improved service quality and enhancing its ability to quickly respond to mar-ket shifts. Cases in point: A large medical supply company provides on-line order entry terminals and inventory manage¬ment software for its customers and successfully achieves a competitive differentiation advantage and creates switching costs, thereby reducing buyer power. As customers' sys¬tems are integrated with those of suppliers, it becomes more difficult for customers to order from a competitor. Be¬cause changing suppliers would entail testing, implementa¬tion, and retraining costs, customers exhibit an inclination to remain loyal to their current suppliers. The more sophis¬ticated the ordering system, the less the buyers' power to switch. The Limited, a major retail chain, reportedly is able to respond four times faster than its competition to shifts in customers' preferences by monitoring customer preferences on a daily basis, and transmitting this information to produc¬tion plants through satellite communication systems (Achrol 1991). Additional insights into the potential for ex¬ploiting IT to achieve a sustainable competitive advantage across a broad spectrum of service industries are provided by the case histories summarized in Table 1.DiscussionThe managerial implications presented in this section are or¬ganized around six themes:1. A firm's skills and resources constitute potential sources ofcompetitive advantage only if they offer benefits desired bycustomers. As Day and Wensley (1988) point out, assess¬ment of opportunities for competitive advantage must re¬volve around the analysis of customer benefits. In the ab¬sence of such analysis, a Firm's attempts to leverage itsskills and resources into positional advantages are likely toprove ineffective. Case in point:In the market for electronic components and calcula-tors, Texas Instruments (TI) successfully exploited scale effects and experience effects to lower costs, and market the product at a low price. It attempted to pursue a similar strategy with digital watches. However, customers did not view low price as a key buying criterion in the purchase of watches. Fea¬tures and appearance were viewed as more impor¬tant. TTs pursuit of a cost leadership strategy in the marketing of digital watches was ineffective, ulti¬mately leading to its withdrawal from the business.2. The attainment of SCA is not an end in itself, but a meansto an end, namely superior long-term financial perfor¬mance. A corporation is not in business just to achieve anSCA over its competitors, but to create wealth for its share¬holders. Actions that contribute to SCA but detract from cre¬ating shareholder wealth can be good strategy in the com¬
petitive sense, but bad strategy for the corporation (Coyne
1985). Case in point:
Fruhan (1972) illustrates the economics of capacity competition in the context of an airline route served by two carriers, in which the dominant carrier, by
Sustainable Competitive Advantage / 93

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Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 2:

(Weston, Chung dan Hoag 1990), dapat memiliki minimal dua efek ben¬eficial. Yang pertama adalah peningkatan efisiensi pekerja individu atau kelompok pekerja. Kurva pengalaman, perpanjangan kurva belajar, adalah hasil dari penerapan prinsip kurva belajar untuk semua biaya nilai tambah bukan hanya produksi dan tenaga kerja costs.14 Kehadiran pengalaman ef¬fects (biaya total rata-rata per unit, diukur di arus konstan menurun dengan persentase konstan dengan setiap dou¬bling pengalaman kumulatif) telah didokumentasikan dalam konteks kedua layanan industri peralatan-intensif seperti telekomunikasi dan utilitas listrik dan orang-intensif industri jasa seperti asuransi jiwa (lihat Abell dan Hammond 1980;. Boston Consulting Group 1972)
Aspek kedua dari pembelajaran organisasi adalah tim ef-benteng. Sebagai anggota dari sebuah karya organisasi bersama-sama selama pe¬riod waktu, prinsip Williamson dapat berlaku-yaitu, sebuah organisasi mungkin menyadari ekonomi informasi in¬terchange melalui pelatihan umum dan pengalaman, re¬peated interaksi interpersonal, dan mungkin develop¬ment dari kode kompak (Williamson 1971,1975). Dengan kata lain, dalam organisasi, arus informasi lebih effi¬ciently dan biaya transaksi berkurang, dan perusahaan be¬comes lebih efisien sebagai pengalaman yang didapat. Selanjutnya, perusahaan, dengan mengubah desain tugas untuk membentuk swakelola kelompok layanan lintas fungsional dan lintas terlatih, bisa (1) im¬prove kualitas layanan yang disediakan oleh mengendalikan vari¬ance pada sumbernya (Pasmore 1988), (2) meningkatkan fleksibilitas organisasi dengan memberdayakan tim untuk menanggapi permintaan konsumen spe¬cific (Tansik 1990), dan (3) capa¬bilities campuran untuk memecahkan masalah rumit yang mencakup beberapa daerah func¬tional cepat dan efektif. Perfor¬mance ditingkatkan dihasilkan dari mempekerjakan tim telah docu¬mented di sejumlah studi penelitian empiris (cf Johnson et al. 1981).
Organisasi belajar atau keahlian dapat menjadi sumber keunggulan kompetitif hanya ketika (1) belajar adalah tacit dan tidak diamati dalam penggunaan dan (2) pengetahuan yang mendasari adalah kompleks (Musim Dingin 1987). Pesaing riding gratis di belajar suatu perusahaan dan keahlian lebih sulit di bawah ini Condi-tions, serta ketika sedikit orang yang mengetahui rahasia yang informa-tion dan mobilitas karyawan rendah. Namun, char-acteristics industri berbagai layanan tidak muncul untuk mod¬erate peran keahlian organisasi sebagai sumber keunggulan com¬petitive.
Informasi Technology15
Teknologi informasi (TI) mengacu pada cara kolektif perakitan dan elektronik menyimpan, transmisi , pro-cessing, dan mengambil kata-kata, angka, gambar, dan suara (Gerstein 1987, p. 5). TI penting sebagai sumber SCA berasal dari potensinya untuk mempengaruhi transformasi rantai nilai sebuah perusahaan jasa (lihat Porter 1990). IT dapat membantu
14The doktrin pengalaman kurva telah dikritik karena kurang dasar teoritis suara. Telah menunjukkan bahwa memperlakukan efek yang mungkin mencapai keunggulan biaya (bangunan saham) sebagai penyebab dan apa sebenarnya penyebab kontribusi kemungkinan bangunan saham (mencapai advan¬tage biaya) sebagai efek (Alberts 1989).
"Karena beberapa penelitian yang diterbitkan selama sepuluh tahun terakhir memberikan mantan cellent wawasan pentingnya TI sebagai sumber advan¬tage kompetitif (lih Benjamin et al 1984;. Kas dan Konsynski 1985; setan dan Row 1987; Glazer 1991; sedikit 1990; Porter dan Millar 1985; dan Weill 1992), hanya beberapa isu kunci yang disorot dalam bagian ini. dalam mencapai suatu SCA oleh (1) menyediakan perusahaan cara-cara baru untuk mengungguli saingan, melalui menurunkan biaya dan / atau enhanc-ing diferensiasi ; (2) bangunan hambatan masuk, membangun biaya switching, dan kadang-kadang benar-benar mengubah dasar persaingan,. dan (3) pemijahan yang sama sekali baru busi-Saksi (Porter dan Millar 1985) Sebagai contoh, investasi di TI memungkinkan bisnis untuk mencapai diferensiasi advan-tage dengan mengamankan hubungan melalui peningkatan kualitas pelayanan dan meningkatkan kemampuannya untuk cepat merespon mar-ket bergeser. Kasus di titik: Sebuah perusahaan besar pasokan medis memberikan terminal order entry on-line dan software manage¬ment persediaan untuk pelanggan dan berhasil mencapai keunggulan diferensiasi kompetitif dan menciptakan beralih biaya, sehingga mengurangi daya pembeli. Sebagai sys¬tems pelanggan yang terintegrasi dengan orang-orang dari pemasok, menjadi lebih sulit bagi pelanggan untuk memesan dari pesaing. Be¬cause mengubah pemasok akan memerlukan pengujian, implementa¬tion, dan pelatihan ulang biaya, pelanggan menunjukkan kecenderungan untuk tetap setia kepada pemasok mereka saat ini. Semakin sophis¬ticated sistem pemesanan, semakin sedikit kekuatan pembeli untuk beralih. The Limited, rantai ritel besar, kabarnya mampu merespon empat kali lebih cepat dari kompetisi pergeseran dalam preferensi pelanggan dengan memantau preferensi pelanggan setiap hari, dan transmisi informasi ini untuk produc¬tion tanaman melalui sistem komunikasi satelit (Achrol 1991 ). Wawasan tambahan ke dalam potensi ex¬ploiting TI untuk mencapai keunggulan kompetitif yang berkelanjutan di seluruh spektrum yang luas dari industri jasa yang disediakan oleh sejarah kasus dirangkum dalam Tabel 1. Diskusi Implikasi manajerial yang disajikan dalam bagian ini or¬ganized sekitar enam tema: 1. Keterampilan Sebuah perusahaan dan sumber daya merupakan potensi sumber keunggulan kompetitif hanya jika mereka menawarkan manfaat yang diinginkan oleh pelanggan. Sebagai Hari dan Wensley (1988) menunjukkan, assess¬ ment peluang untuk keunggulan kompetitif harus re¬ volve sekitar analisis manfaat pelanggan. Dalam ab¬ rasa dari analisis tersebut, upaya Kantor untuk meningkatkan nya keterampilan dan sumber daya menjadi keunggulan posisional cenderung terbukti tidak efektif. Contoh kasus: Di pasar untuk komponen elektronik dan dengan f-tor, Texas Instruments (TI) efek skala berhasil dimanfaatkan dan efek pengalaman untuk menurunkan biaya, dan memasarkan produk dengan harga murah. Ini berusaha untuk mengejar strategi yang sama dengan jam tangan digital. Namun, pelanggan tidak melihat harga rendah sebagai kriteria membeli kunci dalam pembelian jam tangan. Fea¬tures dan penampilan dipandang sebagai lebih impor¬tant. TT mengejar strategi kepemimpinan biaya dalam pemasaran jam tangan digital tidak efektif, ulti¬mately mengarah ke penarikan dari bisnis. 2. Pencapaian SCA bukanlah tujuan itu sendiri, tetapi sarana untuk mencapai tujuan, yaitu superior jangka panjang perfor¬ keuangan Mance. Sebuah perusahaan tidak dalam bisnis hanya untuk mencapai SCA atas pesaingnya, tetapi untuk menciptakan kekayaan bagi share¬ nya pemegang. Tindakan yang berkontribusi terhadap SCA tetapi mengurangi cre¬ kekayaan pemegang saham Ating dapat strategi yang baik dalam com¬ arti petitive, tetapi strategi buruk bagi korporasi (Coyne 1985). Contoh kasus: Fruhan (1972) menggambarkan ekonomi persaingan kapasitas dalam konteks rute penerbangan yang dilayani oleh dua operator, di mana pembawa dominan, dengan Keunggulan Kompetitif Berkelanjutan / 93 Reproduksi dengan izin dari pemilik hak cipta. Reproduksi lanjut dilarang tanpa izin