Teak has become an important specie

Teak has become an important species in the quality tropical hardwood sector (e.g. Pandey and Brown, 2000),Soil erosion under teak plantations has generated some debate (e.g. Bell, 1973; Pandey and Brown, 2000; Ramnarine, 2001) because a number of authors consider that these systems do not provide the abovementioned hydrological benefits associated with forests (Carle et al., 2009). Based on the presumption of high erosion rates under teak plantations, in some countries such as Costa Rica, such plantations cannot be legally established on slopes steeper than 30%, while slopes with a steeper gradient (N30%) are considered adequate for forest plantations of other species or even other perennial crops such as coffee or fruit trees.
Forest cover controls soil erosion by protecting the surface of the soil from raindrop impact and by reducing the speed of run-off water in the hydrological cycle (Brauman et al., 2007; Durán and Rodríguez, 2008; Evans, 2009). Afforestation can protect and even restore degraded soils and their hydrological functions in the water cycle (e.g. Bruijnzeel, 1997, 2004; Brauman et al., 2007; van Dijk and Keenan, 2007), as it is considered to improve infiltration, porosity and hydraulic conductivity, affecting groundwater recharge, surface run-off and soil erosion (e.g. Bonell et al., 2010; Ilstedt et al., 2007;Mapa, 1995). However, some forestry activities, particularly the use of certain machinery, timber extraction and the creation of forest roads, could cause soil degradation and compaction and therefore increase erosion (e.g. Worrel and Hampson, 1997; Ziegler et al., 2004a, 2004b).
Another factor is low levels of litter production have also been linked to high rates of erosion under teak plantations (Boley et al., 2009). However, since teak is a deciduous tree, a large amount of leaf biomass is deposited every year. Evidence of litter production and soil cover by teak residues.
The large leaves of teak trees are associated with an increase in raindrop erosivity, as drops falling from teak vegetation will have several times greater kinetic energy than those falling from other species such as Pinus sp. (Calder, 2001). The high erosivity of these dropswas also observed by Calder (2001) during a storm in India, after a forest fire had destroyed most of the understory vegetation. The post-fire recovery of vegetation brought about a reduction in the erosive energy, as the multilayered understory vegetation serves to protect the soil from the kinetic energy of the raindrops, thus reducing rainfall erosivity (e.g. Brandt,1988). Hence, the mistaken assumption discussed above that the understory vegetation is suppressed in teak plantations, also has an important bearing on the question of raindrop erosivity. Although the large raindrops associated with large teak leaves are highly erosive, properly conserved multilayered understory vegetation (accompanied by a litter layer) would reduce erosivity.
A number of studies have highlighted the drastic increase in erosion rates as a result of prescribed fires in forest plantations (Hamilton, 1991; Maeght et al., 2011; Tangtham, 1992), so the generalized belief that teak plantations are prone to high rates of soil erosion probably originated in certain specific plantations where prescription fires are a common management tool. Although prescription fires are common in some teak plantations (Bell, 1973; Maeght et al., 2011; Pandey and Brown, 2000), they are not so common in the plantations observed in Central America. The absence of recurrent fires in the plantations analyzed in the present case study would favor the presence of understory vegetation along with a well-developed litter layer (Fig. 2), which contributes to lowering soil erosion rates. Hence, plantation management would appear to be the main factor affecting soil erosion in teak forest plantations, rather than the teak itself. However, intensive weed control using herbicides is common in most of the productive teak plantations (Pandey and Brown, 2000), including those observed in Central America, and is considered another cause of soil remaining unprotected, thereby leading to erosion and diminishing the hydraulic properties of the soil (Boley et al., 2009; Bonell et al., 2010; Bruijnzeel, 2004; Fernández-Moya et al., 2013; van Dijk and Keenan, 2007). Both prescribed fires and herbicides result in weed and understory reduction, hence a reduction in organic matter (Balagopalan et al., 1992; Boley et al., 2009). This is considered a soil degradation process,which has been identified as a cause of the deterioration of soil hydraulic properties in teak plantations (Fernández-Moya et al., 2013; Mapa, 1995).

Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 1:

Jati telah menjadi sebuah spesies penting di sektor kayu tropis kualitas (misalnya Pandey dan Brown, 2000), erosi tanah di bawah perkebunan jati telah menghasilkan beberapa perdebatan (misalnya Bell, 1973; Pandey dan Brown, 2000; Ramnarine, 2001) karena sejumlah penulis menganggap bahwa sistem ini menyediakan atas hidrologis manfaat yang terkait dengan hutan (Carle et al., 2009). Berdasarkan anggapan suku tinggi erosi di bawah perkebunan jati, di beberapa negara seperti Kosta Rika, perkebunan tersebut tidak secara hukum didirikan pada lereng curam dari 30%, sementara lereng dengan gradien curam (N30%) telah dianggap cukup untuk hutan perkebunan spesies lain atau bahkan lain tanaman abadi seperti pohon-pohon kopi atau buah. Hutan menutupi kontrol pengikisan tanah oleh melindungi permukaan tanah dari dampak titisan hujan dan mengurangi kecepatan air run-off dalam siklus hidrologis (Brauman et al., 2007; Durán dan Rodríguez, 2008; Evans, 2009). Reboisasi dapat melindungi dan bahkan mengembalikan tanah rusak dan fungsi mereka hidrologis dalam siklus air (misalnya Bruijnzeel, 1997, 2004; Brauman et al., 2007; Van Dijk dan Keenan, 2007), karena dianggap sebagai untuk meningkatkan infiltrasi, porositas dan kelulusan, mempengaruhi recharge airtanah, permukaan run-off dan erosi lahan (misalnya Bonell et al., 2010; Ilstedt et al., 2007; Peta, 1995). Namun, beberapa kegiatan kehutanan, terutama penggunaan mesin tertentu, ekstraksi kayu dan penciptaan jalan hutan, dapat menyebabkan penurunan tanah dan pemadatan dan karena itu meningkatkan erosi (misalnya Worrel dan Hampson, 1997; Ziegler et al., 2004a, 2004b).Faktor lain rendah tingkat produksi sampah juga telah dikaitkan dengan tingginya tingkat erosi di bawah perkebunan jati (Boley et al., 2009). Namun, karena kayu jati pohon berganti daun, sejumlah besar daun biomassa diendapkan setiap tahun. Bukti sampah produksi dan tanah penutup oleh jati residu.The large leaves of teak trees are associated with an increase in raindrop erosivity, as drops falling from teak vegetation will have several times greater kinetic energy than those falling from other species such as Pinus sp. (Calder, 2001). The high erosivity of these dropswas also observed by Calder (2001) during a storm in India, after a forest fire had destroyed most of the understory vegetation. The post-fire recovery of vegetation brought about a reduction in the erosive energy, as the multilayered understory vegetation serves to protect the soil from the kinetic energy of the raindrops, thus reducing rainfall erosivity (e.g. Brandt,1988). Hence, the mistaken assumption discussed above that the understory vegetation is suppressed in teak plantations, also has an important bearing on the question of raindrop erosivity. Although the large raindrops associated with large teak leaves are highly erosive, properly conserved multilayered understory vegetation (accompanied by a litter layer) would reduce erosivity.A number of studies have highlighted the drastic increase in erosion rates as a result of prescribed fires in forest plantations (Hamilton, 1991; Maeght et al., 2011; Tangtham, 1992), so the generalized belief that teak plantations are prone to high rates of soil erosion probably originated in certain specific plantations where prescription fires are a common management tool. Although prescription fires are common in some teak plantations (Bell, 1973; Maeght et al., 2011; Pandey and Brown, 2000), they are not so common in the plantations observed in Central America. The absence of recurrent fires in the plantations analyzed in the present case study would favor the presence of understory vegetation along with a well-developed litter layer (Fig. 2), which contributes to lowering soil erosion rates. Hence, plantation management would appear to be the main factor affecting soil erosion in teak forest plantations, rather than the teak itself. However, intensive weed control using herbicides is common in most of the productive teak plantations (Pandey and Brown, 2000), including those observed in Central America, and is considered another cause of soil remaining unprotected, thereby leading to erosion and diminishing the hydraulic properties of the soil (Boley et al., 2009; Bonell et al., 2010; Bruijnzeel, 2004; Fernández-Moya et al., 2013; van Dijk and Keenan, 2007). Both prescribed fires and herbicides result in weed and understory reduction, hence a reduction in organic matter (Balagopalan et al., 1992; Boley et al., 2009). This is considered a soil degradation process,which has been identified as a cause of the deterioration of soil hydraulic properties in teak plantations (Fernández-Moya et al., 2013; Mapa, 1995).

Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 2:

Jati telah menjadi spesies penting di sektor kayu keras tropis kualitas (misalnya Pandey dan Brown, 2000), erosi tanah di bawah perkebunan jati telah dihasilkan beberapa perdebatan (misalnya Bell, 1973; Pandey dan Brown, 2000; Ramnarine, 2001) karena sejumlah penulis menganggap bahwa sistem ini tidak memberikan manfaat hidrologi tersebut di atas terkait dengan hutan (Carle et al., 2009). Berdasarkan praduga tingkat erosi tinggi di bawah perkebunan jati, di beberapa negara seperti Kosta Rika, perkebunan tersebut tidak dapat secara legal didirikan pada lereng curam dari 30%, sedangkan lereng dengan gradien curam (N30%) dianggap memadai untuk hutan tanaman dari spesies lain atau bahkan tanaman tahunan lainnya seperti kopi atau buah pohon.
Tutupan hutan mengendalikan erosi tanah dengan melindungi permukaan tanah dari dampak hujan dan dengan mengurangi kecepatan air limpasan dalam siklus hidrologi (Brauman et al., 2007 ; Durán dan Rodríguez, 2008; Evans, 2009). Aforestasi dapat melindungi dan bahkan memulihkan tanah terdegradasi dan fungsi hidrologis mereka dalam siklus air (misalnya Bruijnzeel, 1997, 2004; Brauman et al, 2007;. Van Dijk dan Keenan, 2007), karena dianggap untuk meningkatkan infiltrasi, porositas dan hidrolik konduktivitas, mempengaruhi resapan air tanah, permukaan run-off dan erosi tanah (misalnya Bonell et al, 2010;. Ilstedt et al, 2007;. Mapa, 1995). Namun, beberapa kegiatan kehutanan, khususnya penggunaan mesin tertentu, ekstraksi kayu dan penciptaan jalan hutan, dapat menyebabkan degradasi tanah dan pemadatan dan karenanya meningkatkan erosi (misalnya Worrel dan Hampson, 1997;. Ziegler et al, 2004a, 2004b).
Faktor lain adalah rendahnya tingkat produksi sampah juga telah dikaitkan dengan tingginya tingkat erosi di bawah perkebunan jati (Boley et al., 2009). Namun, karena jati adalah pohon gugur, sejumlah besar biomassa daun disimpan setiap tahun. Bukti produksi sampah dan penutup tanah dengan residu jati.
Daun besar pohon jati yang terkait dengan peningkatan hujan erosivitas, sebagai tetes yang jatuh dari vegetasi jati akan memiliki energi kinetik beberapa kali lebih besar daripada yang jatuh dari spesies lain seperti Pinus sp. (Calder, 2001). The erosivitas tinggi dropswas ini juga diamati oleh Calder (2001) selama badai di India, setelah kebakaran hutan telah menghancurkan sebagian besar vegetasi understory. Pemulihan pasca-kebakaran vegetasi membawa pengurangan energi erosif, sebagai vegetasi understory berlapis-lapis berfungsi untuk melindungi tanah dari energi kinetik dari air hujan, sehingga mengurangi curah hujan erosivitas (misalnya Brandt, 1988). Oleh karena itu, asumsi keliru yang dibahas di atas bahwa vegetasi understory ditekan di perkebunan jati, juga memiliki pengaruh penting pada pertanyaan tentang hujan erosivitas. Meskipun hujan besar yang terkait dengan daun jati besar sangat erosif, benar dilestarikan vegetasi understory berlapis-lapis (disertai dengan lapisan serasah) akan mengurangi erosivitas.
Sejumlah penelitian telah menyoroti peningkatan drastis tingkat erosi sebagai akibat dari kebakaran yang ditentukan dalam hutan tanaman (Hamilton, 1991;. Maeght et al, 2011; Tangtham, 1992), sehingga kepercayaan umum bahwa perkebunan jati rentan terhadap tingginya tingkat erosi tanah mungkin berasal perkebunan spesifik tertentu di mana kebakaran resep adalah alat manajemen yang sama. Meskipun kebakaran resep yang umum di beberapa perkebunan jati (Bell, 1973;. Maeght et al, 2011; Pandey dan Brown, 2000), mereka tidak begitu umum di perkebunan diamati di Amerika Tengah. Tidak adanya kebakaran berulang di perkebunan dianalisis dalam studi kasus ini akan mendukung kehadiran vegetasi understory bersama dengan berkembang dengan baik sampah lapisan (Gambar. 2), yang memberikan kontribusi untuk menurunkan tingkat erosi tanah. Oleh karena itu, manajemen perkebunan akan muncul menjadi faktor utama yang mempengaruhi erosi tanah di perkebunan hutan jati, daripada jati itu sendiri. Namun, pengendalian gulma intensif menggunakan herbisida umum di sebagian besar perkebunan produktif jati (Pandey dan Brown, 2000), termasuk yang diamati di Amerika Tengah, dan dianggap penyebab lain dari tanah yang tersisa tidak dilindungi, sehingga menyebabkan erosi dan mengurangi sifat hidrolik tanah (Boley et al, 2009;.. Bonell et al, 2010; Bruijnzeel, 2004; Fernández-Moya et al, 2013;. van Dijk dan Keenan, 2007). Kedua kebakaran ditentukan dan herbisida menghasilkan gulma dan pengurangan understory, maka pengurangan bahan organik (Balagopalan et al, 1992;.. Boley et al, 2009). Hal ini dianggap sebagai proses degradasi tanah, yang telah diidentifikasi sebagai penyebab kerusakan sifat hidrolik tanah di perkebunan jati (Fernández-Moya et al, 2013;. Mapa, 1995).