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ABSTRACTMore than 14% of the approximately 25,000 people killed each year in traffic accidents inEurope are pedestrians.This high proportion of pedestrian fatalities led transportation researchers to make theimprovement of pedestrian safety a priority. Few performance models based on crash data forpedestrian crashes exist. This is due to the spread distribution of the data that make difficultidentifying statistical correlations. Traditional reactive strategies based on crash history analysisdepend greatly on the quality and availability of the crash data. Consequently surrogate safetymeasures were developed as an efficient preventive approach.The Traffic Conflict Technique (TCT) was developed as “surrogate measure of road safety” byusing near-accident indicators based on the measurement of the spatial and temporal proximityof road users. In this paper, a new conflict indicator, named Pedestrian Risk Index (PRI), isproposed, linking both the probability of collision between vehicle and pedestrian and theseverity of the consequences.A before-after evaluation was carried out as a case study in Spain using PRI as a surrogatemeasure of safety in order to evaluate the safety performance of new traffic calming devices thatreplace zebra marked crosswalks.This paper shows that PRI is an effective measure of modifications in drivers’ behavior due tothe installation of different safety countermeasures at a crosswalk. The PRI shows a reduction inseverity of conflicts with an expected propensity to improve pedestrian safety.INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUNDTraffic safety is commonly analyzed in terms of the number of traffic crashes and human losses.This approach is regarded as ‘reactive’, implying that a significant number of accidents must berecorded before a decision can be made. A further drawback with this approach concerns thequality and availability of accident data.This has led to increasing interest in obtaining surrogate measures that reflect the safety of a roadfacility.To be useful, a surrogate measurement technique should satisfy two conditions (3):1. A measurable or observable non-crash event that is physically related in a predictableand reliable way to actual crashes, and2. A practical method for converting or calibrating the non-crash event into thecorresponding crash frequency and/or severity.Most literature in surrogate measures is related to the Traffic Conflicts Technique (TCT) (4, 5, 6,and 7). TCT is a methodology for field observations based on measures of the spatial andtemporal proximity of road users (proximal safety indicators) that describe the interactionbetween road users involved in a critical event for safety.A conflict is so defined: “A traffic conflict is an observable situation in which two or more roadusers approach each other in space and time to such an extent that there is risk of collision iftheir movements remain unchanged”(5).The primary advantage of TCT is that conflicts occurred much more frequently than crashes.Furthermore TCT may provide information on relative risks to diagnose the types of problems ata particular location, and it represents an easy and efficient tool to check location safety issueswhen there is limited or no crash data.The predictive validity of the TCT is most often determined by the level of statistical correlationbetween observed conflicts and accident data. Chin and Quek (4) suggested that validityproblems were at least partially due to the quality and coverage of accident data. Hydén (5) alsopointed out the need for validation in relation to the diagnostic qualities of the Traffic ConflictTechnique instead of the more typical approach that was mainly directed at establishingpredictive ability. Furthermore, Migletz (6) and Svensson (7) indicated that conflict studies canproduce estimates of accident occurrence that are as good as those based on accident data, butrequiring a significantly shorter period for data collection.The reliability of conflict measures can be improved by the use of objectively defined measures,for example, through processes involving video-analysis.Although largely developed in the case of conflicts between vehicles, TCT presents some gapswhen pedestrians are involved in the conflict. This may be due to the complex movementdynamics and groupings, non-rigid, and generally less organized nature of pedestrian traffic.In TCT literature, attempts have been made to define spatial or temporal indices of the severityof vehicle-pedestrian conflicts. Among these, there is the Time to Zebra (TTZ), proposed (8) as avariation of the concept of Time to Collision (9) and developed to estimate the frequency andseverity of a critical situation between a vehicle and the pedestrian.The Post Encroachment Time (PET) between two road users, defined by Allen (10), can also beused. The PET is defined as the period of time from the moment when the first road user leavesthe conflict area until the second road user reaches it. Usually, the last calculable PET (last PET)is taken as a figure to evaluate traffic safety. Hupfer (11) proposed the DST (Deceleration to Safety Time), that is the necessary deceleration so that second road user reaches the conflict areanot earlier than the first road user leaves it (i.e. when last PET =0, there is DST0).In this context, the Pedestrian Risk Index (PRI) was proposed as a new conflict indicator. It is aTCT measure for pedestrians and is appropriate for different traffic situations.Although, the mechanical formulas used to define PRI are well known and the analytic approachto characterizing the kinematics of vehicle/pedestrian conflict appears to be treated by otherauthors (12, 13, 14, 15, 16, and 17), in this paper it is shown how to compute an index derivedby the actual driver behavior basing on the TCT approach. Therefore, the main difference from
the studies reported in literature is that PRI is carried out using actual driving behavior observed
at the zebra crossing during the entire development of the traffic conflict phase defined by the
authors.
PEDESTRIAN RISK INDEX (PRI)
PRI is an indicator of the type "if…then" to evaluate the probability and potential severity of a
pedestrian-vehicle collision.
In the dart-out crash model, in which a car is traveling when the pedestrian begins moving
toward the street, it was assumed that if it is possible to pass the conflict area before the
pedestrian, this is what the driver does. Otherwise, if the pedestrian reaches the conflict area
before the vehicle, the pedestrian stops (Figure 1).
Based on this model, three different phases of the conflict can be identified:
1. Passing phase: the vehicle is so close to pedestrian crossing that it can overtake the
conflict area before the pedestrian reaches it. Otherwise, the vehicle is so far that the pedestrian
can cross before the vehicle
2. Stopping phase: the vehicle is so far and with a speed that it can stop in safety in the
possibility of pedestrian presence in conflict area;
3. Conflict phase: the positions and speeds of the two road users can lead to collision if
conflict actors don’t take an evasive maneuver (according to conflict definition);
Particularly, phase 3 has to be identified and analyzed carefully because it represents the
condition of potential collision between vehicle and pedestrian.
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