ABSTRACTMore than 14% of the approximately 25,000 people killed each y terjemahan - ABSTRACTMore than 14% of the approximately 25,000 people killed each y Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

ABSTRACTMore than 14% of the approx

ABSTRACT
More than 14% of the approximately 25,000 people killed each year in traffic accidents in
Europe are pedestrians.
This high proportion of pedestrian fatalities led transportation researchers to make the
improvement of pedestrian safety a priority. Few performance models based on crash data for
pedestrian crashes exist. This is due to the spread distribution of the data that make difficult
identifying statistical correlations. Traditional reactive strategies based on crash history analysis
depend greatly on the quality and availability of the crash data. Consequently surrogate safety
measures were developed as an efficient preventive approach.
The Traffic Conflict Technique (TCT) was developed as “surrogate measure of road safety” by
using near-accident indicators based on the measurement of the spatial and temporal proximity
of road users. In this paper, a new conflict indicator, named Pedestrian Risk Index (PRI), is
proposed, linking both the probability of collision between vehicle and pedestrian and the
severity of the consequences.
A before-after evaluation was carried out as a case study in Spain using PRI as a surrogate
measure of safety in order to evaluate the safety performance of new traffic calming devices that
replace zebra marked crosswalks.
This paper shows that PRI is an effective measure of modifications in drivers’ behavior due to
the installation of different safety countermeasures at a crosswalk. The PRI shows a reduction in
severity of conflicts with an expected propensity to improve pedestrian safety.
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
Traffic safety is commonly analyzed in terms of the number of traffic crashes and human losses.
This approach is regarded as ‘reactive’, implying that a significant number of accidents must be
recorded before a decision can be made. A further drawback with this approach concerns the
quality and availability of accident data.
This has led to increasing interest in obtaining surrogate measures that reflect the safety of a road
facility.
To be useful, a surrogate measurement technique should satisfy two conditions (3):
1. A measurable or observable non-crash event that is physically related in a predictable
and reliable way to actual crashes, and
2. A practical method for converting or calibrating the non-crash event into the
corresponding crash frequency and/or severity.
Most literature in surrogate measures is related to the Traffic Conflicts Technique (TCT) (4, 5, 6,
and 7). TCT is a methodology for field observations based on measures of the spatial and
temporal proximity of road users (proximal safety indicators) that describe the interaction
between road users involved in a critical event for safety.
A conflict is so defined: “A traffic conflict is an observable situation in which two or more road
users approach each other in space and time to such an extent that there is risk of collision if
their movements remain unchanged”(5).
The primary advantage of TCT is that conflicts occurred much more frequently than crashes.
Furthermore TCT may provide information on relative risks to diagnose the types of problems at
a particular location, and it represents an easy and efficient tool to check location safety issues
when there is limited or no crash data.
The predictive validity of the TCT is most often determined by the level of statistical correlation
between observed conflicts and accident data. Chin and Quek (4) suggested that validity
problems were at least partially due to the quality and coverage of accident data. Hydén (5) also
pointed out the need for validation in relation to the diagnostic qualities of the Traffic Conflict
Technique instead of the more typical approach that was mainly directed at establishing
predictive ability. Furthermore, Migletz (6) and Svensson (7) indicated that conflict studies can
produce estimates of accident occurrence that are as good as those based on accident data, but
requiring a significantly shorter period for data collection.
The reliability of conflict measures can be improved by the use of objectively defined measures,
for example, through processes involving video-analysis.
Although largely developed in the case of conflicts between vehicles, TCT presents some gaps
when pedestrians are involved in the conflict. This may be due to the complex movement
dynamics and groupings, non-rigid, and generally less organized nature of pedestrian traffic.
In TCT literature, attempts have been made to define spatial or temporal indices of the severity
of vehicle-pedestrian conflicts. Among these, there is the Time to Zebra (TTZ), proposed (8) as a
variation of the concept of Time to Collision (9) and developed to estimate the frequency and
severity of a critical situation between a vehicle and the pedestrian.
The Post Encroachment Time (PET) between two road users, defined by Allen (10), can also be
used. The PET is defined as the period of time from the moment when the first road user leaves
the conflict area until the second road user reaches it. Usually, the last calculable PET (last PET)
is taken as a figure to evaluate traffic safety. Hupfer (11) proposed the DST (Deceleration to Safety Time), that is the necessary deceleration so that second road user reaches the conflict area
not earlier than the first road user leaves it (i.e. when last PET =0, there is DST0).
In this context, the Pedestrian Risk Index (PRI) was proposed as a new conflict indicator. It is a
TCT measure for pedestrians and is appropriate for different traffic situations.
Although, the mechanical formulas used to define PRI are well known and the analytic approach
to characterizing the kinematics of vehicle/pedestrian conflict appears to be treated by other
authors (12, 13, 14, 15, 16, and 17), in this paper it is shown how to compute an index derived
by the actual driver behavior basing on the TCT approach. Therefore, the main difference from
the studies reported in literature is that PRI is carried out using actual driving behavior observed
at the zebra crossing during the entire development of the traffic conflict phase defined by the
authors.
PEDESTRIAN RISK INDEX (PRI)
PRI is an indicator of the type "if…then" to evaluate the probability and potential severity of a
pedestrian-vehicle collision.
In the dart-out crash model, in which a car is traveling when the pedestrian begins moving
toward the street, it was assumed that if it is possible to pass the conflict area before the
pedestrian, this is what the driver does. Otherwise, if the pedestrian reaches the conflict area
before the vehicle, the pedestrian stops (Figure 1).
Based on this model, three different phases of the conflict can be identified:
1. Passing phase: the vehicle is so close to pedestrian crossing that it can overtake the
conflict area before the pedestrian reaches it. Otherwise, the vehicle is so far that the pedestrian
can cross before the vehicle
2. Stopping phase: the vehicle is so far and with a speed that it can stop in safety in the
possibility of pedestrian presence in conflict area;
3. Conflict phase: the positions and speeds of the two road users can lead to collision if
conflict actors don’t take an evasive maneuver (according to conflict definition);
Particularly, phase 3 has to be identified and analyzed carefully because it represents the
condition of potential collision between vehicle and pedestrian.
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ABSTRACTMore than 14% of the approximately 25,000 people killed each year in traffic accidents inEurope are pedestrians.This high proportion of pedestrian fatalities led transportation researchers to make theimprovement of pedestrian safety a priority. Few performance models based on crash data forpedestrian crashes exist. This is due to the spread distribution of the data that make difficultidentifying statistical correlations. Traditional reactive strategies based on crash history analysisdepend greatly on the quality and availability of the crash data. Consequently surrogate safetymeasures were developed as an efficient preventive approach.The Traffic Conflict Technique (TCT) was developed as “surrogate measure of road safety” byusing near-accident indicators based on the measurement of the spatial and temporal proximityof road users. In this paper, a new conflict indicator, named Pedestrian Risk Index (PRI), isproposed, linking both the probability of collision between vehicle and pedestrian and theseverity of the consequences.A before-after evaluation was carried out as a case study in Spain using PRI as a surrogatemeasure of safety in order to evaluate the safety performance of new traffic calming devices thatreplace zebra marked crosswalks.This paper shows that PRI is an effective measure of modifications in drivers’ behavior due tothe installation of different safety countermeasures at a crosswalk. The PRI shows a reduction inseverity of conflicts with an expected propensity to improve pedestrian safety.INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUNDTraffic safety is commonly analyzed in terms of the number of traffic crashes and human losses.This approach is regarded as ‘reactive’, implying that a significant number of accidents must berecorded before a decision can be made. A further drawback with this approach concerns thequality and availability of accident data.This has led to increasing interest in obtaining surrogate measures that reflect the safety of a roadfacility.To be useful, a surrogate measurement technique should satisfy two conditions (3):1. A measurable or observable non-crash event that is physically related in a predictableand reliable way to actual crashes, and2. A practical method for converting or calibrating the non-crash event into thecorresponding crash frequency and/or severity.Most literature in surrogate measures is related to the Traffic Conflicts Technique (TCT) (4, 5, 6,and 7). TCT is a methodology for field observations based on measures of the spatial andtemporal proximity of road users (proximal safety indicators) that describe the interactionbetween road users involved in a critical event for safety.A conflict is so defined: “A traffic conflict is an observable situation in which two or more roadusers approach each other in space and time to such an extent that there is risk of collision iftheir movements remain unchanged”(5).The primary advantage of TCT is that conflicts occurred much more frequently than crashes.Furthermore TCT may provide information on relative risks to diagnose the types of problems ata particular location, and it represents an easy and efficient tool to check location safety issueswhen there is limited or no crash data.The predictive validity of the TCT is most often determined by the level of statistical correlationbetween observed conflicts and accident data. Chin and Quek (4) suggested that validityproblems were at least partially due to the quality and coverage of accident data. Hydén (5) alsopointed out the need for validation in relation to the diagnostic qualities of the Traffic ConflictTechnique instead of the more typical approach that was mainly directed at establishingpredictive ability. Furthermore, Migletz (6) and Svensson (7) indicated that conflict studies canproduce estimates of accident occurrence that are as good as those based on accident data, butrequiring a significantly shorter period for data collection.The reliability of conflict measures can be improved by the use of objectively defined measures,for example, through processes involving video-analysis.Although largely developed in the case of conflicts between vehicles, TCT presents some gapswhen pedestrians are involved in the conflict. This may be due to the complex movementdynamics and groupings, non-rigid, and generally less organized nature of pedestrian traffic.In TCT literature, attempts have been made to define spatial or temporal indices of the severityof vehicle-pedestrian conflicts. Among these, there is the Time to Zebra (TTZ), proposed (8) as avariation of the concept of Time to Collision (9) and developed to estimate the frequency andseverity of a critical situation between a vehicle and the pedestrian.The Post Encroachment Time (PET) between two road users, defined by Allen (10), can also beused. The PET is defined as the period of time from the moment when the first road user leavesthe conflict area until the second road user reaches it. Usually, the last calculable PET (last PET)is taken as a figure to evaluate traffic safety. Hupfer (11) proposed the DST (Deceleration to Safety Time), that is the necessary deceleration so that second road user reaches the conflict areanot earlier than the first road user leaves it (i.e. when last PET =0, there is DST0).In this context, the Pedestrian Risk Index (PRI) was proposed as a new conflict indicator. It is aTCT measure for pedestrians and is appropriate for different traffic situations.Although, the mechanical formulas used to define PRI are well known and the analytic approachto characterizing the kinematics of vehicle/pedestrian conflict appears to be treated by otherauthors (12, 13, 14, 15, 16, and 17), in this paper it is shown how to compute an index derivedby the actual driver behavior basing on the TCT approach. Therefore, the main difference from
the studies reported in literature is that PRI is carried out using actual driving behavior observed
at the zebra crossing during the entire development of the traffic conflict phase defined by the
authors.
PEDESTRIAN RISK INDEX (PRI)
PRI is an indicator of the type "if…then" to evaluate the probability and potential severity of a
pedestrian-vehicle collision.
In the dart-out crash model, in which a car is traveling when the pedestrian begins moving
toward the street, it was assumed that if it is possible to pass the conflict area before the
pedestrian, this is what the driver does. Otherwise, if the pedestrian reaches the conflict area
before the vehicle, the pedestrian stops (Figure 1).
Based on this model, three different phases of the conflict can be identified:
1. Passing phase: the vehicle is so close to pedestrian crossing that it can overtake the
conflict area before the pedestrian reaches it. Otherwise, the vehicle is so far that the pedestrian
can cross before the vehicle
2. Stopping phase: the vehicle is so far and with a speed that it can stop in safety in the
possibility of pedestrian presence in conflict area;
3. Conflict phase: the positions and speeds of the two road users can lead to collision if
conflict actors don’t take an evasive maneuver (according to conflict definition);
Particularly, phase 3 has to be identified and analyzed carefully because it represents the
condition of potential collision between vehicle and pedestrian.
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ABSTRAK
Lebih dari 14% dari sekitar 25.000 orang tewas setiap tahun dalam kecelakaan lalu lintas di
Eropa adalah pejalan kaki.
Proporsi yang tinggi ini dari kematian pejalan kaki yang dipimpin peneliti transportasi untuk membuat
perbaikan keselamatan pejalan kaki prioritas. Model kinerja beberapa berdasarkan data kecelakaan untuk
crash pejalan kaki ada. Hal ini disebabkan distribusi penyebaran data yang membuat sulit
mengidentifikasi korelasi statistik. Strategi reaktif tradisional yang didasarkan pada analisis sejarah kecelakaan
sangat tergantung pada kualitas dan ketersediaan data kecelakaan. Akibatnya keselamatan pengganti
langkah-langkah dikembangkan sebagai pendekatan preventif efisien.
Lalu Lintas Konflik Teknik (TCT) dikembangkan sebagai "ukuran pengganti keselamatan jalan" dengan
menggunakan indikator dekat-kecelakaan berdasarkan pengukuran kedekatan spasial dan temporal
dari pengguna jalan. Dalam tulisan ini, indikator konflik baru, Indeks bernama Risiko Pedestrian (PRI), yang
diusulkan, yang menghubungkan kedua kemungkinan tabrakan antara kendaraan dan pejalan kaki dan
beratnya konsekuensi.
A sebelum-setelah evaluasi dilakukan sebagai studi kasus di Spanyol menggunakan PRI sebagai pengganti
ukuran keamanan untuk mengevaluasi kinerja keselamatan lalu-lintas menenangkan perangkat baru yang
menggantikan zebra ditandai penyeberangan.
Makalah ini menunjukkan bahwa PRI adalah langkah yang efektif dari modifikasi perilaku driver 'karena
instalasi penanggulangan keamanan yang berbeda di penyeberangan. PRI menunjukkan penurunan
keparahan konflik dengan kecenderungan diharapkan untuk meningkatkan keselamatan pejalan kaki.
PENDAHULUAN DAN LATAR BELAKANG
keselamatan lalu lintas umumnya dianalisis dalam hal jumlah kecelakaan lalu lintas dan kerugian manusia.
Pendekatan ini dianggap sebagai 'reaktif', menyiratkan bahwa Sejumlah besar kecelakaan harus
dicatat sebelum keputusan dapat dibuat. Sebuah kelemahan lebih lanjut dengan pendekatan ini
menyangkut. Kualitas dan ketersediaan data kecelakaan
ini telah menyebabkan meningkatnya minat dalam memperoleh tindakan pengganti yang mencerminkan keselamatan
jalan. Fasilitas
Untuk menjadi berguna, teknik pengukuran pengganti harus memenuhi dua kondisi (3):
1. Sebuah acara non-kecelakaan terukur atau diamati yang secara fisik terkait dalam diprediksi
cara dan dapat diandalkan untuk crash aktual, dan
2. Sebuah metode praktis untuk mengubah atau kalibrasi acara non-crash ke dalam
frekuensi dan / atau tingkat keparahan kecelakaan yang sesuai.
Sebagian besar literatur dalam langkah-langkah pengganti berhubungan dengan Teknik Lalu Lintas Konflik (TCT) (4, 5, 6,
dan 7). TCT adalah metodologi untuk observasi lapangan berdasarkan ukuran spasial dan
kedekatan temporal pengguna jalan (indikator keselamatan proksimal) yang menggambarkan interaksi
antara pengguna jalan yang terlibat dalam acara penting untuk keselamatan.
Konflik begitu didefinisikan: "Sebuah konflik lalu lintas situasi diamati di mana dua atau jalan lebih
pengguna mendekati satu sama lain dalam ruang dan waktu sedemikian rupa bahwa ada risiko tabrakan jika
gerakan mereka tetap tidak berubah "(5).
Keuntungan utama dari TCT adalah bahwa konflik terjadi jauh lebih sering daripada crash.
Selanjutnya TCT dapat memberikan informasi tentang risiko relatif untuk mendiagnosis jenis masalah pada
lokasi tertentu, dan itu merupakan alat yang mudah dan efisien untuk memeriksa isu-isu keselamatan lokasi
bila ada terbatas atau tidak ada data kecelakaan.
Validitas prediksi dari TCT adalah paling sering ditentukan oleh tingkat korelasi statistik
antara konflik diamati dan data kecelakaan. Dagu dan Quek (4) menyatakan bahwa validitas
masalah setidaknya sebagian karena kualitas dan cakupan data kecelakaan. Hyden (5) juga
menunjukkan perlunya validasi dalam kaitannya dengan kualitas diagnostik Lalu Lintas Konflik
Teknik bukan pendekatan yang lebih khas yang terutama diarahkan pada membangun
kemampuan prediktif. Selanjutnya, Migletz (6) dan Svensson (7) menunjukkan bahwa studi konflik dapat
menghasilkan perkiraan terjadinya kecelakaan yang lebih baik seperti yang berdasarkan data kecelakaan, tetapi
membutuhkan waktu yang signifikan lebih pendek untuk pengumpulan data.
Kehandalan tindakan konflik dapat ditingkatkan dengan menggunakan langkah-langkah yang ditetapkan secara objektif,
misalnya, melalui proses yang melibatkan video analisis.
Meskipun sebagian besar dikembangkan dalam kasus konflik antara kendaraan, TCT menyajikan beberapa kesenjangan
ketika pejalan kaki yang terlibat dalam konflik. Hal ini mungkin karena gerakan kompleks
dinamika dan kelompok, non-kaku, dan alam umumnya kurang terorganisir lalu lintas pejalan kaki.
Dalam literatur TCT, upaya telah dilakukan untuk menentukan indeks spasial atau temporal keparahan
konflik kendaraan-pejalan kaki. Di antaranya, ada waktu untuk Zebra (TTZ), diusulkan (8) sebagai
variasi dari konsep Waktu untuk Collision (9) dan dikembangkan untuk memperkirakan frekuensi dan
keparahan situasi kritis antara kendaraan dan pejalan kaki.
The posting Perambahan Waktu (PET) antara dua pengguna jalan, yang didefinisikan oleh Allen (10), juga dapat
digunakan. PET didefinisikan sebagai periode waktu dari saat ketika pengguna jalan pertama meninggalkan
daerah konflik sampai pengguna jalan kedua mencapai itu. Biasanya, PET diperhitungkan terakhir (PET terakhir)
diambil sebagai tokoh untuk mengevaluasi keselamatan lalu lintas. Hupfer (11) mengusulkan DST (Perlambatan untuk Keselamatan Time), yang adalah perlambatan diperlukan sehingga pengguna jalan kedua mencapai daerah konflik
tidak lebih awal dari pengguna jalan pertama daun itu (yaitu ketika PET terakhir = 0, ada DST0).
Dalam konteks ini, Indeks Risiko Pedestrian (PRI) diusulkan sebagai indikator konflik baru. Ini adalah
ukuran TCT untuk pejalan kaki dan sesuai untuk situasi lalu lintas yang berbeda.
Meskipun, rumus mekanik yang digunakan untuk mendefinisikan PRI terkenal dan pendekatan analitik
untuk mencirikan kinematika kendaraan / konflik pejalan kaki tampaknya diperlakukan oleh lain
penulis (12, 13, 14, 15, 16, dan 17), dalam makalah ini ditunjukkan bagaimana menghitung indeks berasal
oleh perilaku pengemudi yang sebenarnya mendasarkan pada pendekatan TCT. Oleh karena itu, perbedaan utama dari
studi yang dilaporkan dalam literatur adalah bahwa PRI dilakukan dengan menggunakan perilaku mengemudi yang sebenarnya diamati
di persimpangan zebra selama pengembangan seluruh fase konflik lalu lintas didefinisikan oleh
penulis.
INDEX pejalan kaki RISIKO (PRI)
PRI merupakan indikator dari jenis "jika ... maka" untuk mengevaluasi kemungkinan dan potensi keparahan dari
tabrakan pejalan kaki-kendaraan.
Dalam model kecelakaan panah-out, di mana mobil bepergian ketika pejalan kaki mulai bergerak
ke arah jalan, diasumsikan bahwa jika adalah mungkin untuk lulus daerah konflik sebelum
pejalan kaki, ini adalah apa pengemudi tidak. Jika tidak, jika pejalan kaki mencapai daerah konflik
sebelum kendaraan, pejalan kaki berhenti (Gambar 1).
Berdasarkan model ini, tiga fase yang berbeda dari konflik dapat diidentifikasi:
1. Melewati fase: kendaraan sangat dekat dengan penyeberangan pejalan kaki yang dapat menyalip
daerah konflik sebelum pejalan kaki mencapai itu. Jika tidak, kendaraan begitu jauh sehingga pejalan kaki
bisa menyeberang sebelum kendaraan
2. Fase menghentikan: kendaraan begitu jauh dan dengan kecepatan yang dapat berhenti di keselamatan di
kemungkinan kehadiran pejalan kaki di daerah konflik;
3. Fase konflik: posisi dan kecepatan dari dua pengguna jalan dapat menyebabkan tabrakan jika
pelaku konflik tidak mengambil manuver mengelak (menurut definisi konflik);
Khususnya, fase 3 harus diidentifikasi dan dianalisa dengan hati-hati karena merupakan
kondisi potensi tabrakan antara kendaraan dan pejalan kaki.
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