IntroductionIt is well-established that fire alters N cycling in the p terjemahan - IntroductionIt is well-established that fire alters N cycling in the p Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

IntroductionIt is well-established

Introduction

It is well-established that fire alters N cycling in the ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir (Pinus ponderosa/Psuedotsuga
menziesii) ecosystem (Neary et al. 1999; Hart et al. 2005). Nitrogen availability has been shown to increase immediately after fire (Covington and Sackett 1990, 1992; DeLuca and Zouhar 2000) and may remain elevated on the scale of months to years as a result of enhanced mineralization (Covington and Sackett 1990, 1992; Monleon et al. 1997; Kaye and Hart 1998; Gundale et al. 2005). Numerous processes that increase N mineralization after fire have beenidentified, including improved substrate quality (White 1991, 1994; Fernandez et al. 1997; Pietikainen et al. 2000a), death of roots and soil organisms resulting in a large labile organic N pool (DeBano et al. 1979; Dunn et al. 1979; Diaz-Ravina et al. 1996; Neary et al. 1999), and a reduction in C to N ratios due to preferential loss of C during combustion (Gundale et al. 2005). A potentially overlooked factor that may also enhance N cycling after fire is the addition of charcoal to soils. Several recent studies have shown that charcoal has the potential to greatly enhance soil fertility. Amazonian forest soils amended centuries ago with charcoal and manure still maintain some of the highest biodiversity and productivity of any soils within the Amazon basin (Glaser et al. 2001, 2002; Mann 2002). In boreal forest soils, charcoal was shown to enhance N cycling by ameliorating the inhibitory effects of litter extracts from late-successional species, which in turn promotes growth of early-successional species (Zackrisson et al. 1996; Wardle et al. 1998; DeLuca et al. 2002; Berglund et al. 2004). Recently, DeLuca et al. (2006) found that the addition of wildfire-formed charcoal to ponderosa pine forest soils increased nitrification rates. Charcoal may enhance soil fertility through a variety of mechanisms. Increased N turnover may occur by charcoal sorption of high C:N organic molecules from the soil solution (Zackrisson et al. 1996; Wardle et al. 1998; Glaser et al. 2002), resulting in reduced microbial N immobilization and higher net mineralization and nitrification rates. In addition, charcoal may remove specific groups of organic molecules, including polyphenol or monoterpene compounds that are thought to inhibit nitrification (Rice and Pancholy 1972; Zackrisson et al. 1996; DeLuca et al. 2002; Berglund et al. 2004). Sorption of organic molecules, along with the gradual breakdown of charcoal, may initiate humus formation and, thus, enhance long-term soil fertility (Glaser et al. 2002). Charcoal may also enhance soil fertility by creating habitat for microbes within its porous structure (Pietikainen et al. 2000b). Despite these potential roles that charcoal may have in increasing soil fertility, its ecological role in forest ecosystems, such as ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir, has received little attention. We conducted three separate experiments using low-temperature charcoal to investigate whether charcoal influences soil solution chemistry and growth of an early successional species. In our first experiment, our objective was to determine whether charcoal had an influence on soil solution chemistry after addition of the extracts of a late successional species, Arctostapholos uvi-ursi, via surface adsorption of phenolic compounds. We hypothesized that charcoal added to a ponderosa pine forest soil will effectively sorb the phenol fraction in litter extracts, which would correspond with enhanced N cycling. In our second experiment, our objective was to compare the influence of charcoal made from the bark of two species, ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir, on growth of Koeleria macrantha, a perennial grass species that thrives after fire disturbance in western Montana ponderosa pine Douglas-fir forests. Bark charring during low-intensity wildfire is a potentially significant source of charcoal in this system. Charred bark may gradually slough from trees after fire and become incorporated in the soils surrounding trees. It is recognized that ponderosa pine is a more fireadapted species than Douglas-fir; thus, an intriguing hypothesis is that charred bark of the more fire-adapted species will have a stronger positive effect on N cycling processes and plant growth. In our third experiment, our objective was to determine whether charcoal generated during a wildfire would have any effect on K. macrantha growth and to determine whether this relationship is dependent on soil charcoal concentration. We hypothesized that wildfire charcoal will positively influence K. macrantha and that this effect will increase as a function of soil charcoal concentration. Collectively, these three experiments address our central hypothesis that charcoal will alter solution chemistry by sorbing phenols and enhancing N cycling, which in turn will improve the growth of early successional species.
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IntroductionIt is well-established that fire alters N cycling in the ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir (Pinus ponderosa/Psuedotsugamenziesii) ecosystem (Neary et al. 1999; Hart et al. 2005). Nitrogen availability has been shown to increase immediately after fire (Covington and Sackett 1990, 1992; DeLuca and Zouhar 2000) and may remain elevated on the scale of months to years as a result of enhanced mineralization (Covington and Sackett 1990, 1992; Monleon et al. 1997; Kaye and Hart 1998; Gundale et al. 2005). Numerous processes that increase N mineralization after fire have beenidentified, including improved substrate quality (White 1991, 1994; Fernandez et al. 1997; Pietikainen et al. 2000a), death of roots and soil organisms resulting in a large labile organic N pool (DeBano et al. 1979; Dunn et al. 1979; Diaz-Ravina et al. 1996; Neary et al. 1999), and a reduction in C to N ratios due to preferential loss of C during combustion (Gundale et al. 2005). A potentially overlooked factor that may also enhance N cycling after fire is the addition of charcoal to soils. Several recent studies have shown that charcoal has the potential to greatly enhance soil fertility. Amazonian forest soils amended centuries ago with charcoal and manure still maintain some of the highest biodiversity and productivity of any soils within the Amazon basin (Glaser et al. 2001, 2002; Mann 2002). In boreal forest soils, charcoal was shown to enhance N cycling by ameliorating the inhibitory effects of litter extracts from late-successional species, which in turn promotes growth of early-successional species (Zackrisson et al. 1996; Wardle et al. 1998; DeLuca et al. 2002; Berglund et al. 2004). Recently, DeLuca et al. (2006) found that the addition of wildfire-formed charcoal to ponderosa pine forest soils increased nitrification rates. Charcoal may enhance soil fertility through a variety of mechanisms. Increased N turnover may occur by charcoal sorption of high C:N organic molecules from the soil solution (Zackrisson et al. 1996; Wardle et al. 1998; Glaser et al. 2002), resulting in reduced microbial N immobilization and higher net mineralization and nitrification rates. In addition, charcoal may remove specific groups of organic molecules, including polyphenol or monoterpene compounds that are thought to inhibit nitrification (Rice and Pancholy 1972; Zackrisson et al. 1996; DeLuca et al. 2002; Berglund et al. 2004). Sorption of organic molecules, along with the gradual breakdown of charcoal, may initiate humus formation and, thus, enhance long-term soil fertility (Glaser et al. 2002). Charcoal may also enhance soil fertility by creating habitat for microbes within its porous structure (Pietikainen et al. 2000b). Despite these potential roles that charcoal may have in increasing soil fertility, its ecological role in forest ecosystems, such as ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir, has received little attention. We conducted three separate experiments using low-temperature charcoal to investigate whether charcoal influences soil solution chemistry and growth of an early successional species. In our first experiment, our objective was to determine whether charcoal had an influence on soil solution chemistry after addition of the extracts of a late successional species, Arctostapholos uvi-ursi, via surface adsorption of phenolic compounds. We hypothesized that charcoal added to a ponderosa pine forest soil will effectively sorb the phenol fraction in litter extracts, which would correspond with enhanced N cycling. In our second experiment, our objective was to compare the influence of charcoal made from the bark of two species, ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir, on growth of Koeleria macrantha, a perennial grass species that thrives after fire disturbance in western Montana ponderosa pine Douglas-fir forests. Bark charring during low-intensity wildfire is a potentially significant source of charcoal in this system. Charred bark may gradually slough from trees after fire and become incorporated in the soils surrounding trees. It is recognized that ponderosa pine is a more fireadapted species than Douglas-fir; thus, an intriguing hypothesis is that charred bark of the more fire-adapted species will have a stronger positive effect on N cycling processes and plant growth. In our third experiment, our objective was to determine whether charcoal generated during a wildfire would have any effect on K. macrantha growth and to determine whether this relationship is dependent on soil charcoal concentration. We hypothesized that wildfire charcoal will positively influence K. macrantha and that this effect will increase as a function of soil charcoal concentration. Collectively, these three experiments address our central hypothesis that charcoal will alter solution chemistry by sorbing phenols and enhancing N cycling, which in turn will improve the growth of early successional species.
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Pendahuluan

Hal ini mapan kebakaran yang mengubah N bersepeda di ponderosa pinus / Douglas-fir (Pinus ponderosa / Psuedotsuga
ekosistem menziesii) (Neary dkk 1999;. Hart et al tahun 2005.). Ketersediaan nitrogen telah terbukti meningkatkan segera setelah kebakaran (Covington dan Sackett 1990, 1992; DeLuca dan Zouhar 2000) dan mungkin tetap tinggi pada skala bulan ke tahun sebagai akibat dari mineralisasi ditingkatkan (Covington dan Sackett 1990, 1992; Monleon et al 1997;. Kaye dan Hart 1998;. Gundale et al 2005). Banyak proses yang meningkatkan N mineralisasi setelah kebakaran telah beenidentified, termasuk peningkatan kualitas substrat (Putih 1991, 1994; Fernandez et al 1997;.. Pietikainen et al 2000a), kematian Akar dan organisme tanah menghasilkan labil N organik kolam besar (DeBano . et al 1979; Dunn et al 1.979;. Diaz-Ravina et al 1996;.. Neary et al, 1999), dan penurunan C rasio N karena kehilangan preferensial C selama pembakaran (Gundale et al 2005).. Faktor berpotensi diabaikan yang juga dapat meningkatkan N bersepeda setelah kebakaran adalah penambahan arang untuk tanah. Beberapa studi terbaru menunjukkan bahwa arang memiliki potensi untuk lebih meningkatkan kesuburan tanah. Tanah hutan Amazon telah diubah abad yang lalu dengan arang dan pupuk kandang masih mempertahankan beberapa keanekaragaman hayati tertinggi dan produktivitas setiap tanah dalam cekungan Amazon (Glaser et al, 2001, 2002;. Mann 2002). Di tanah hutan boreal, arang ditunjukkan untuk meningkatkan N bersepeda oleh ameliorating efek penghambatan ekstrak sampah dari spesies akhir-suksesi, yang pada gilirannya mendorong pertumbuhan spesies awal-suksesi (Zackrisson et al 1996;. Wardle et al 1998;. DeLuca . et al, 2002; Berglund et al 2004).. Baru-baru ini, DeLuca et al. (2006) menemukan bahwa penambahan arang api-dibentuk untuk tanah hutan pinus ponderosa peningkatan tingkat nitrifikasi. Arang dapat meningkatkan kesuburan tanah melalui berbagai mekanisme. Peningkatan omset N dapat terjadi oleh sorpsi arang dari C tinggi: N molekul organik dari larutan tanah (... Zackrisson et al 1996; Wardle et al 1998; Glaser et al, 2002), sehingga mengurangi mikroba N imobilisasi dan mineralisasi bersih yang lebih tinggi dan tarif nitrifikasi. Selain itu, arang dapat menghapus kelompok tertentu molekul organik, termasuk polifenol atau monoterpene senyawa yang diduga menghambat nitrifikasi (Rice dan Pancholy 1972; Zackrisson et al 1996;. DeLuca et al, 2002;.. Berglund et al 2004). Serapan molekul organik, bersama dengan rincian bertahap arang, dapat memulai pembentukan humus dan, dengan demikian, meningkatkan kesuburan tanah jangka panjang (Glaser et al. 2002). Arang juga dapat meningkatkan kesuburan tanah dengan menciptakan habitat bagi mikroba dalam struktur berpori-nya (Pietikainen et al. 2000b). Meskipun peran potensial yang arang mungkin memiliki dalam meningkatkan kesuburan tanah, peran ekologi dalam ekosistem hutan, seperti pinus ponderosa / Douglas-fir, telah mendapat sedikit perhatian. Kami melakukan tiga eksperimen terpisah menggunakan arang suhu rendah untuk menyelidiki apakah arang pengaruh tanah solusi kimia dan pertumbuhan spesies suksesi awal. Dalam percobaan pertama kami, tujuan kami adalah untuk menentukan apakah arang memiliki pengaruh pada larutan tanah kimia setelah penambahan ekstrak dari spesies suksesi akhir, Arctostapholos UVI-ursi, melalui adsorpsi permukaan senyawa fenolik. Kami berhipotesis bahwa arang ditambahkan ke tanah hutan pinus ponderosa akan efektif sorb fraksi fenol dalam ekstrak sampah, yang akan sesuai dengan ditingkatkan N bersepeda. Dalam percobaan kedua, tujuan kami adalah untuk membandingkan pengaruh arang yang terbuat dari kulit dua spesies, ponderosa pinus dan Douglas-cemara, pada pertumbuhan Koeleria macrantha, spesies rumput abadi yang tumbuh subur setelah gangguan api di barat Montana ponderosa pinus Douglas hutan -fir. Bark hangus saat intensitas rendah api merupakan sumber potensial yang signifikan dari arang dalam sistem ini. Kulit kayu hangus mungkin secara bertahap mengelupaskan dari pohon setelah kebakaran dan menjadi tergabung dalam tanah sekitar pohon. Hal ini diakui bahwa ponderosa pinus adalah spesies yang lebih fireadapted dari Douglas-fir; dengan demikian, hipotesis yang menarik adalah bahwa kulit kayu hangus spesies yang lebih beradaptasi dengan api akan memiliki dampak positif yang lebih kuat pada proses bersepeda N dan pertumbuhan tanaman. Dalam percobaan ketiga, tujuan kami adalah untuk menentukan apakah arang yang dihasilkan selama api akan memiliki efek pada pertumbuhan macrantha K. dan untuk menentukan apakah hubungan ini tergantung pada konsentrasi arang tanah. Kami berhipotesis bahwa arang api positif akan mempengaruhi K. macrantha dan bahwa efek ini akan meningkatkan sebagai fungsi konsentrasi arang tanah. Secara kolektif, tiga percobaan ini membahas hipotesis pusat kami bahwa arang akan mengubah solusi kimia oleh sorbing fenol dan meningkatkan N bersepeda, yang selanjutnya akan meningkatkan pertumbuhan spesies suksesi awal.
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