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To facilitate the analysis of information, existing elements of the waste management systems are described in terms of waste generation and separation, collection, transfer and transport, treatment, recycling and final disposal.3. Literature reviewPast research has identified the stakeholders or people or organizations that may have an interest in adequate waste management. The stakeholders reported are: national and local government (Shekdar, 2009); municipal authorities; city corporations; non-governmental organizations (NGO’s); households (Sujauddin et al., 2008); private contractors; Ministries of Health; Environment, Economy and Finance (Geng et al., 2009) and recycling companies (Tai et al., 2011).Some scholars have identified factors influencing the elements of the waste management systems. According to Sujauddin et al. (2008) the generation of waste is influenced by family size, their education level and the monthly income. Households attitudes related to separation of waste are affected by the active support and investment of a real estate company, community residential committees’ involvement for public participation (Zhuang et al., 2008) and fee for collection service based on the waste volume or weight (Scheinberg, 2011). Gender, peer influence, land size, location of household and membership of environmental organization explain household waste utilization and separation behavior (Ekere et al., 2009).It has been reported that collection, transfer and transport practices are affected by improper bin collection systems, poor route planning, lack of information about collection schedule (Hazra and Goel, 2009), insufficient infrastructure (Moghadam et al., 2009), poor roads and number of vehicles for waste collection (Henry et al., 2006). Organizing the informal sector and promoting micro-enterprises were mentioned by Sharholy et al. (2008) as effective ways of extending affordable waste collection services.Lack of knowledge of treatment systems by authorities is reported as one factor affecting the treatment of waste (Chung and Lo, 2008).Tadesse et al. (2008) analyzed the factors that influence household waste disposal decision making. Results showed that the supply of waste facilities significantly affects waste disposal choice. Inadequate supply of waste containers and longer distance to these containers increase the probability of waste dumping in open areas and roadsides relative to the use of communal containers. Insufficient financial resources limiting the safe disposal of waste in well equipped and engineered landfills and absence of legislation are mentioned by Pokhrel and Viraraghavan (2005).In relation to the pricing for disposal Scheinberg (2011), analyzing the data from “Solid Waste Management in the World’s Cities” (Scheinberg et al., 2010), notes that there are indications that high rates of recovery are associated with tipping fees at the disposal site. High disposal pricing has the effect of more recovery of waste generated, that goes to the value chains or beneficial reuse of waste.In relation to recycling Gonzalez-Torre and Adenso-Diaz (2005) reported that social influences, altruistic and regulatory factors are some of the reasons why certain communities develop strong recycling habits. The authors also showed that people who frequently go to the bins to dispose of general refuse are more likely to recycle some product at home, and in most cases, as the distance to the recycling bins decreases, the number of fractions that citizens separate and collect at home increases. Minghua et al. (2009) stated that in order to increase recycling rates, the government should encourage markets for recycled materials and increasing professionalism in recycling companies. Other factors mentioned by other scholars are financial support for recycling projects and infrastructures (Nissim et al., 2005), recycling companies in the country (Henry et al., 2006), drop-off and buy back centers (Matete and Trois, 2008) and organization of the informal sector (Sharholy et al., 2008).Waste management is also affected by the aspects or enabling factors that facilitate the performance of the system. They are: technical, environmental, financial, socio-cultural, institutional and legal.Literature suggests that technical factors influencing the system are related to lack of technical skills among personnel within municipalities and government authorities (Hazra and Goel, 2009), deficient infrastructure (Moghadam et al., 2009), poor roads and vehicles (Henry et al., 2006), insufficient technologies and reliable data (Mrayyan and Hamdi, 2006).Matete and Trois, 2008 and Asase et al., 2009 respectively suggested that the factors affecting the environmental aspect of solid waste management in developing countries are the lack of environmental control systems and evaluation of the real impacts. Ekere et al. (2009) proposed that the involvement of the population in active environmental organizations is necessary to have better systems.Municipalities have failed to manage solid waste due to financial factors. The huge expenditure needed to provide the service (Sharholy et al., 2007), the absence of financial support, limited resources, the unwillingness of the users to pay for the service (Sujauddin et al., 2008) and lack of proper use of economic instruments have hampered the delivery of proper waste management services. Sharholy et al. (2008) indicated that the involvement of the private sector is a factor that could improve the efficiency of the system.It is generally regarded that waste management is the sole duty and responsibility of local authorities, and that the public is not expected to contribute (Vidanaarachchi et al., 2006). The operational efficiency of solid waste management depends upon the active participation of both the municipal agency and the citizens, therefore, socio cultural aspects mentioned by some scholars include people participating in decision making (Sharholy et al., 2008), community awareness and societal apathy for contributing in solutions (Moghadam et al., 2009).Management deficiencies are often observed in the municipalities. Some researchers that have investigated the institutional factors that affect the system have come to the conclusion that local waste management authorities have a lack of organizational capacities (leadership) and professional knowledge. Besides they concluded that the information available is very scanty from the public domain (Chung and Lo, 2008). The extremely limited information is not complete or is scattered around various agencies concerned, therefore, it is extremely difficult to gain an insight into the complex problem of municipal solid waste management (Seng et al., 2010).Waste workers are associated to low social status (Vidanaarachchi et al., 2006) situation that gives as a result low motivation among the solid waste employees. Politicians give low priority to solid waste compared to other municipal activities (Moghadam et al., 2009) with the end result of limited trained and skilled personnel in the municipalities (Sharholy et al., 2008). Positive factors mentioned that improve the system are support from municipal authorities (Zurbrügg et al., 2005) and strategic plans for waste management that allows monitoring and evaluating annually the system (Asase et al., 2009).Researchers have documented how an adequate legal framework contributes positively to the development of the integrated waste management system (Asase et al., 2009) while the absence of satisfactory policies (Mrayyan and Hamdi, 2006) and weak regulations (Seng et al., 2010) are detrimental to it.4. Research methodologyThe review of the literature provided an overview of reported stakeholders and factors affecting waste management systems. Data on country performance indicators were gathered from databases. They were: public health (perinatal mortality, adult mortality, life expectancy at birth and healthy life expectancy at birth (WHO, 2010a, WHO, 2010b, WHO, 2010c, WHO, 2010d and USEPA, 2010), economy (Gross Domestic Product/capita) (WB, 2010), and environment (ecological footprint/capita (Global Footprint Network, 2010), CO2-emission/capita (UN, 2007). In addition, the following country characterization parameters were selected (persons/km2, % urban population) (CIA, 2010).In addition, information was gathered from more than thirty urban areas visited, in some cases for more than one occasion, in twenty two developing countries in three continents (Table 1). Data collection has been supported by different contributors in those cities during visits made by the first author during the period 1985–2011.
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