during the season, for staying comm

during the season, for staying committed even
as he mourned. At the celebration party after
the team’s final game, Torre specifically sought
out right fielder Paul O’Neill. Although he had
received the news of his father’s death that
morning, O’Neill chose to play in the decisive
game—and he burst into tears the moment it
ended. Torre made a point of acknowledging
O’Neill’s personal struggle, calling him a “warrior.”
Torre also used the spotlight of the victory
celebration to praise two players whose return
the following year was threatened by
contract disputes. In doing so, he sent a clear
message to the team and to the club’s owner
that he valued the players immensely—too
much to lose them.
Along with ministering to the emotions of
his people, an affiliative leader may also tend
to his own emotions openly. The year Torre’s
brother was near death awaiting a heart transplant,
he shared his worries with his players.
He also spoke candidly with the team about
his treatment for prostate cancer.
The affiliative style’s generally positive impact
makes it a good all-weather approach, but
leaders should employ it particularly when trying
to build team harmony, increase morale,
improve communication, or repair broken
trust. For instance, one executive in our study
was hired to replace a ruthless team leader.
The former leader had taken credit for his employees’
work and had attempted to pit them
against one another. His efforts ultimately
failed, but the team he left behind was suspicious
and weary. The new executive managed
to mend the situation by unstintingly showing
emotional honesty and rebuilding ties. Several
months in, her leadership had created a renewed
sense of commitment and energy.
Despite its benefits, the affiliative style
should not be used alone. Its exclusive focus
on praise can allow poor performance to go
uncorrected; employees may perceive that
The leader’s modus operandi
The style in a phrase
Underlying emotional
intelligence competencies
When the style works best
Overall impact on climate
Coercive
Demands immediate
compliance
“Do what I tell you.”
Drive to achieve, initiative,
self-control
In a crisis, to kick start a
turnaround, or with problem
employees
Negative
Authoritative
Mobilizes people
toward a vision
“Come with me.”
Self-confidence, empathy,
change catalyst
When changes require a
new vision, or when a clear
direction is needed
Most strongly positive
Our research found
that leaders use six
styles,each springing
from different components
of emotional
intelligence. Here is a
summary of the styles,
their origin,when they
work best, and their
impact on an organization’s
climate and thus
its performance.
The Six Leadership Styles at a Glance
Leadership That Gets Results
harvard business review • march–april 2000 page 8
mediocrity is tolerated. And because affiliative
leaders rarely offer constructive advice
on how to improve, employees must figure
out how to do so on their own. When people
need clear directives to navigate through
complex challenges, the affiliative style
leaves them rudderless. Indeed, if overly relied
on, this style can actually steer a group
to failure. Perhaps that is why many affiliative
leaders, including Torre, use this style in
close conjunction with the authoritative
style. Authoritative leaders state a vision, set
standards, and let people know how their
work is furthering the group’s goals. Alternate
that with the caring, nurturing approach
of the affiliative leader, and you have
a potent combination.
The Democratic Style. Sister Mary ran a
Catholic school system in a large metropolitan
area. One of the schools—the only private
school in an impoverished neighborhood—
had been losing money for years, and the archdiocese
could no longer afford to keep it open.
When Sister Mary eventually got the order to
shut it down, she didn’t just lock the doors.
She called a meeting of all the teachers and
staff at the school and explained to them the
details of the financial crisis—the first time
anyone working at the school had been included
in the business side of the institution.
She asked for their ideas on ways to keep the
school open and on how to handle the closing,
should it come to that. Sister Mary spent
much of her time at the meeting just listening.
She did the same at later meetings for
school parents and for the community and during
a successive series of meetings for the
school’s teachers and staff. After two months
of meetings, the consensus was clear: the
school would have to close. A plan was made
to transfer students to other schools in the
Catholic system.
The final outcome was no different than if
Sister Mary had gone ahead and closed the
school the day she was told to. But by allowing
the school’s constituents to reach that decision
collectively, Sister Mary received none of the
backlash that would have accompanied such a
move. People mourned the loss of the school,
but they understood its inevitability. Virtually
no one objected.
Compare that with the experiences of a
priest in our research who headed another
Catholic school. He, too, was told to shut it
down. And he did—by fiat. The result was disastrous:
parents filed lawsuits, teachers and
parents picketed, and local newspapers ran editorials
attacking his decision. It took a year to
resolve the disputes before he could finally go
ahead and close the school.
Sister Mary exemplifies the democratic
style in action—and its benefits. By spending
time getting people’s ideas and buy-in, a
leader builds trust, respect, and commitment.
By letting workers themselves have a say in
decisions that affect their goals and how they
Affiliative
Creates harmony and builds
emotional bonds
“People come first.”
Empathy, building
relationships, communication
To heal rifts in a team or
to motivate people during
stressful circumstances
Positive
Democratic
Forges consensus through
participation
“What do you think?”
Collaboration, team
leadership, communication
To build buy-in or
consensus, or to get input
from valuable employees
Positive
Pacesetting
Sets high standards for
performance
“Do as I do, now.”
Conscientiousness, drive
to achieve, initiative
To get quick results from
a highly motivated and
competent team
Negative
Coaching
Develops people for the
future
“Try this.”
Developing others, empathy,
self-awareness
To help an employee
improve performance or
develop long-term strengths
Positive
Leadership That Gets Results
harvard business review • march–april 2000 page 9
do their work, the democratic leader drives
up flexibility and responsibility. And by listening
to employees’ concerns, the democratic
leader learns what to do to keep morale high.
Finally, because they have a say in setting
their goals and the standards for evaluating
success, people operating in a democratic system
tend to be very realistic about what can
and cannot be accomplished.
However, the democratic style has its drawbacks,
which is why its impact on climate is not
as high as some of the other styles. One of its
more exasperating consequences can be endless
meetings where ideas are mulled over, consensus
remains elusive, and the only visible result
is scheduling more meetings. Some
democratic leaders use the style to put off
making crucial decisions, hoping that enough
thrashing things out will eventually yield a
blinding insight. In reality, their people end up
feeling confused and leaderless. Such an approach
can even escalate conflicts.
When does the style work best? This approach
is ideal when a leader is himself uncertain
about the best direction to take and needs
ideas and guidance from able employees. And
even if a leader has a strong vision, the democratic
style works well to generate fresh ideas
for executing that vision.
The democratic style, of course, makes
much less sense when employees are not competent
or informed enough to offer sound advice.
And it almost goes without saying that
building consensus is wrongheaded in times
of crisis. Take the case of a CEO whose computer
company was severely threatened by
changes in the market. He always sought consensus
about what to do. As competitors stole
customers and customers’ needs changed, he
kept appointing committees to consider the
situation. When the market made a sudden
shift because of a new technology, the CEO
froze in his tracks. The board replaced him
before he could appoint yet another task
force to consider the situation. The new CEO,
while occasionally democratic and affiliative,
relied heavily on the authoritative style, especially
in his first months.
The Pacesetting Style. Like the coercive
style, the pacesetting style has its place in the
leader’s repertory, but it should be used sparingly.
That’s not what we expected to find.
After all, the hallmarks of the pacesetting style
sound admirable. The leader sets extremely
high performance standards and exemplifies
them himself. He is obsessive about doing
things better and faster, and he asks the same
of everyone around him. He quickly pinpoints