Uncertainty and game theoryMain articles: Information economics, Game  terjemahan - Uncertainty and game theoryMain articles: Information economics, Game  Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

Uncertainty and game theoryMain art

Uncertainty and game theory
Main articles: Information economics, Game theory, and Financial economics
Uncertainty in economics is an unknown prospect of gain or loss, whether quantifiable as risk or not. Without it, household behaviour would be unaffected by uncertain employment and income prospects, financial and capital markets would reduce to exchange of a single instrument in each market period, and there would be no communications industry.[45] Given its different forms, there are various ways of representing uncertainty and modelling economic agents' responses to it.[46]
Game theory is a branch of applied mathematics that considers strategic interactions between agents, one kind of uncertainty. It provides a mathematical foundation of industrial organization, discussed above, to model different types of firm behaviour, for example in an oligopolistic industry (few sellers), but equally applicable to wage negotiations, bargaining, contract design, and any situation where individual agents are few enough to have perceptible effects on each other. As a method heavily used in behavioural economics, it postulates that agents choose strategies to maximize their payoffs, given the strategies of other agents with at least partially conflicting interests.[47][48]
In this, it generalizes maximization approaches developed to analyse market actors such as in the supply and demand model and allows for incomplete information of actors. The field dates from the 1944 classic Theory of Games and Economic Behavior by John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern. It has significant applications seemingly outside of economics in such diverse subjects as formulation of nuclear strategies, ethics, political science, and evolutionary biology.[49]
Risk aversion may stimulate activity that in well-functioning markets smooths out risk and communicates information about risk, as in markets for insurance, commodity futures contracts, and financial instruments. Financial economics or simply finance describes the allocation of financial resources. It also analyses the pricing of financial instruments, the financial structure of companies, the efficiency and fragility of financial markets,[50] financial crises, and related government policy or regulation.[51]
Some market organizations may give rise to inefficiencies associated with uncertainty. Based on George Akerlof's "Market for Lemons" article, the paradigm example is of a dodgy second-hand car market. Customers without knowledge of whether a car is a "lemon" depress its price below what a quality second-hand car would be.[52] Information asymmetry arises here, if the seller has more relevant information than the buyer but no incentive to disclose it. Related problems in insurance are adverse selection, such that those at most risk are most likely to insure (say reckless drivers), and moral hazard, such that insurance results in riskier behaviour (say more reckless driving).[53]
Both problems may raise insurance costs and reduce efficiency by driving otherwise willing transactors from the market ("incomplete markets"). Moreover, attempting to reduce one problem, say adverse selection by mandating insurance, may add to another, say moral hazard. Information economics, which studies such problems, has relevance in subjects such as insurance, contract law, mechanism design, monetary economics, and health care.[53] Applied subjects include market and legal remedies to spread or reduce risk, such as warranties, government-mandated partial insurance, restructuring or bankruptcy law, inspection, and regulation for quality and information disclosure.[54][47]
0/5000
Dari: -
Ke: -
Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 1: [Salinan]
Disalin!
Uncertainty and game theoryMain articles: Information economics, Game theory, and Financial economicsUncertainty in economics is an unknown prospect of gain or loss, whether quantifiable as risk or not. Without it, household behaviour would be unaffected by uncertain employment and income prospects, financial and capital markets would reduce to exchange of a single instrument in each market period, and there would be no communications industry.[45] Given its different forms, there are various ways of representing uncertainty and modelling economic agents' responses to it.[46]Game theory is a branch of applied mathematics that considers strategic interactions between agents, one kind of uncertainty. It provides a mathematical foundation of industrial organization, discussed above, to model different types of firm behaviour, for example in an oligopolistic industry (few sellers), but equally applicable to wage negotiations, bargaining, contract design, and any situation where individual agents are few enough to have perceptible effects on each other. As a method heavily used in behavioural economics, it postulates that agents choose strategies to maximize their payoffs, given the strategies of other agents with at least partially conflicting interests.[47][48]In this, it generalizes maximization approaches developed to analyse market actors such as in the supply and demand model and allows for incomplete information of actors. The field dates from the 1944 classic Theory of Games and Economic Behavior by John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern. It has significant applications seemingly outside of economics in such diverse subjects as formulation of nuclear strategies, ethics, political science, and evolutionary biology.[49]Risk aversion may stimulate activity that in well-functioning markets smooths out risk and communicates information about risk, as in markets for insurance, commodity futures contracts, and financial instruments. Financial economics or simply finance describes the allocation of financial resources. It also analyses the pricing of financial instruments, the financial structure of companies, the efficiency and fragility of financial markets,[50] financial crises, and related government policy or regulation.[51]
Some market organizations may give rise to inefficiencies associated with uncertainty. Based on George Akerlof's "Market for Lemons" article, the paradigm example is of a dodgy second-hand car market. Customers without knowledge of whether a car is a "lemon" depress its price below what a quality second-hand car would be.[52] Information asymmetry arises here, if the seller has more relevant information than the buyer but no incentive to disclose it. Related problems in insurance are adverse selection, such that those at most risk are most likely to insure (say reckless drivers), and moral hazard, such that insurance results in riskier behaviour (say more reckless driving).[53]
Both problems may raise insurance costs and reduce efficiency by driving otherwise willing transactors from the market ("incomplete markets"). Moreover, attempting to reduce one problem, say adverse selection by mandating insurance, may add to another, say moral hazard. Information economics, which studies such problems, has relevance in subjects such as insurance, contract law, mechanism design, monetary economics, and health care.[53] Applied subjects include market and legal remedies to spread or reduce risk, such as warranties, government-mandated partial insurance, restructuring or bankruptcy law, inspection, and regulation for quality and information disclosure.[54][47]
Sedang diterjemahkan, harap tunggu..
Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 2:[Salinan]
Disalin!
Ketidakpastian dan permainan teori
Artikel utama: ekonomi Informasi, teori permainan, dan ekonomi Keuangan
ketidakpastian di bidang ekonomi adalah prospek yang tidak diketahui dari keuntungan atau kerugian, apakah dihitung sebagai risiko atau tidak. Tanpa itu, perilaku rumah tangga akan terpengaruh oleh prospek pekerjaan dan pendapatan tidak pasti, keuangan dan pasar modal akan mengurangi untuk pertukaran satu instrumen dalam setiap periode pasar, dan tidak akan ada industri komunikasi. [45] Mengingat bentuknya yang berbeda, ada berbagai cara untuk mewakili ketidakpastian dan pemodelan tanggapan pelaku ekonomi 'untuk itu. [46]
Teori permainan adalah cabang dari matematika terapan yang menganggap interaksi strategis antara agen, satu jenis ketidakpastian. Ini menyediakan dasar matematika organisasi industri, yang dibahas di atas, untuk model berbagai jenis perilaku perusahaan, misalnya dalam industri oligopolistik (beberapa penjual), tetapi juga berlaku untuk negosiasi upah, tawar-menawar, desain kontrak, dan situasi di mana agen individu cukup beberapa memiliki efek jelas pada satu sama lain. Sebagai metode banyak digunakan dalam ekonomi perilaku, itu mendalilkan bahwa agen memilih strategi untuk memaksimalkan hadiah mereka, mengingat strategi dari agen lain dengan setidaknya sebagian bertentangan kepentingan. [47] [48]
Dalam hal ini, generalisasi maksimalisasi pendekatan yang dikembangkan untuk menganalisis pasar aktor seperti dalam pasokan dan permintaan Model dan memungkinkan untuk informasi yang tidak lengkap dari aktor. Tanggal lapangan dari 1944 Teori klasik Permainan dan Perilaku Ekonomi oleh John von Neumann dan Oskar Morgenstern. Ini memiliki aplikasi yang signifikan tampaknya luar ekonomi dalam mata pelajaran yang beragam seperti perumusan strategi nuklir, etika, ilmu politik, dan biologi evolusi. [49]
Risk aversion dapat merangsang aktivitas yang pasar di yang berfungsi menghaluskan keluar risiko dan memberikan informasi tentang risiko, seperti di pasar asuransi, kontrak berjangka komoditi, dan instrumen keuangan. Ekonomi keuangan atau hanya keuangan menggambarkan alokasi sumber daya keuangan. Hal ini juga menganalisis harga instrumen keuangan, struktur keuangan perusahaan, efisiensi dan kerapuhan pasar keuangan, [50] krisis keuangan, dan kebijakan pemerintah terkait atau peraturan. [51]
Beberapa organisasi pasar dapat menimbulkan inefisiensi terkait dengan ketidakpastian . Berdasarkan "Pasar untuk Lemons" Artikel George Akerlof ini, contoh paradigma adalah pasar mobil bekas cerdik. Pelanggan tanpa pengetahuan tentang apakah mobil adalah "lemon" menekan harga di bawah apa mobil berkualitas kedua tangan akan. [52] Asimetri informasi muncul di sini, jika penjual memiliki informasi yang lebih relevan daripada pembeli tetapi tidak ada insentif untuk mengungkapkan itu. Terkait masalah di asuransi adverse selection, sehingga mereka paling berisiko yang paling mungkin untuk memastikan (mengatakan driver nekat), dan moral hazard, sehingga hasil asuransi dalam perilaku berisiko (mengatakan lebih nekat mengemudi). [53]
Kedua masalah dapat meningkatkan biaya asuransi dan mengurangi efisiensi dengan mengemudi pelaku transaksi dinyatakan bersedia dari pasar ( "pasar tidak lengkap"). Selain itu, mencoba untuk mengurangi satu masalah, mengatakan merugikan seleksi dengan mandat asuransi, dapat menambahkan yang lain, mengatakan moral hazard. Informasi ekonomi, yang mempelajari masalah tersebut, memiliki relevansi dalam mata pelajaran seperti asuransi, hukum kontrak, desain mekanisme, ekonomi moneter, dan perawatan kesehatan. [53] Pelajaran terapan mencakup pasar dan upaya hukum untuk menyebarkan atau mengurangi risiko, seperti jaminan, asuransi parsial mandat pemerintah, restrukturisasi atau hukum kepailitan, inspeksi, dan regulasi untuk kualitas dan keterbukaan informasi. [54] [47]
Sedang diterjemahkan, harap tunggu..
 
Bahasa lainnya
Dukungan alat penerjemahan: Afrikans, Albania, Amhara, Arab, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahasa Indonesia, Basque, Belanda, Belarussia, Bengali, Bosnia, Bulgaria, Burma, Cebuano, Ceko, Chichewa, China, Cina Tradisional, Denmark, Deteksi bahasa, Esperanto, Estonia, Farsi, Finlandia, Frisia, Gaelig, Gaelik Skotlandia, Galisia, Georgia, Gujarati, Hausa, Hawaii, Hindi, Hmong, Ibrani, Igbo, Inggris, Islan, Italia, Jawa, Jepang, Jerman, Kannada, Katala, Kazak, Khmer, Kinyarwanda, Kirghiz, Klingon, Korea, Korsika, Kreol Haiti, Kroat, Kurdi, Laos, Latin, Latvia, Lituania, Luksemburg, Magyar, Makedonia, Malagasi, Malayalam, Malta, Maori, Marathi, Melayu, Mongol, Nepal, Norsk, Odia (Oriya), Pashto, Polandia, Portugis, Prancis, Punjabi, Rumania, Rusia, Samoa, Serb, Sesotho, Shona, Sindhi, Sinhala, Slovakia, Slovenia, Somali, Spanyol, Sunda, Swahili, Swensk, Tagalog, Tajik, Tamil, Tatar, Telugu, Thai, Turki, Turkmen, Ukraina, Urdu, Uyghur, Uzbek, Vietnam, Wales, Xhosa, Yiddi, Yoruba, Yunani, Zulu, Bahasa terjemahan.

Copyright ©2024 I Love Translation. All reserved.

E-mail: