Research design4.1 Sample selectionWe begin to select firms included i terjemahan - Research design4.1 Sample selectionWe begin to select firms included i Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

Research design4.1 Sample selection


Research design

4.1 Sample selection
We begin to select firms included in the S&P 1500 index from the Compustat
Execucomp database for years 2007-2010 as CEO tenure needs to be computed using
the CEO data from this database. The Compustat Execucomp database provides the
data on CEO compensation, shareholding, beginning year of being CEO, etc. for those
firms. This procedure yields a raw sample of 5,037 firm-year observations. Next,
we collect the data from the Compustat North America database and the CRSP database
to compute all dependent and independent variables used in the regression analysis.
After the elimination of observations with missing data, the sample size is reduced to
3,436 firm-year observations. Like Roychowdhury (2006), we delete firms in regulated
industries (SIC codes between 4400 and 5000) and banks and financial institutions
(SIC codes between 6000 and 6500) to further reduce the sample to 3,136 firm-year
observations. As Roychowdhury (2006) finds that firms manipulate real activities to
avoid reporting annual losses, we restrict the sample to firms with small positive
earnings[3]. This yields a final sample of 100 firm-year observations for years 2007-2010.
We manually collect the data on audit committee and board characteristics by reviewing
proxy statements downloaded from the EDGAR database for these 100 firm-year
observations. Panel A of Table I reports the sample breakdown by year. There are 18, 24,
38 and 20 firms in 2007, 2008, 2009 and 2010, respectively. Panel B of Table I reports
that there are 58 firm-year observations in manufacturing industries and 42 firm-year
observations in non-manufacturing industries.

4.2 Measurement of real earnings management
Like Roychowdhury (2006), we consider three real earnings manipulation approaches:
(1) sales manipulation;
(2) reduction of discretionary expenditures; and
(3) overproduction.

Sales manipulation means that managers attempt to temporarily increase sales during
the year by offering price discounts or more lenient credit terms. Reduction of
discretionary expenditures means that managers reduce discretionary expenditures
such as advertising expenses, R&D expenses, and selling, general and administrative
expenses to increase earnings. Overproduction means that managers increase earnings
by producing more units of goods than necessary to lower fixed costs per unit and
thereafter cost of goods sold.

Offering price discounts to increase sales results in lower margins. As margins decline,
the cash inflow per sale becomes lower. Similarly, offering more lenient credit terms like
lower interest rates (zero-percent financing) leads to lower cash inflow. Thus, sales
manipulation activities are associated with lower current-period cash flows from
operations than what is normal given the sales level. Our first measure of real earnings
management is abnormal cash flows from operations (ACFOt), which are estimated using
the following cross-sectional regression for every two-digit SIC industry and year[4]:

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Desain riset4.1 pilihan sampelKita mulai untuk memilih perusahaan yang termasuk dalam indeks S & P 1500 dari CompustatExecucomp database untuk tahun 2007-2010 sebagai CEO kepemilikan perlu dihitung menggunakanCEO data dari database ini. Menyediakan database Compustat Execucompdata pada CEO kompensasi, kepemilikan saham, awal tahun sebagai CEO, dll bagiperusahaan. Prosedur ini menghasilkan sampel mentah 5,037 perusahaan tahun pengamatan. Berikutnya,Kami mengumpulkan data dari database Amerika Utara Compustat dan CRSP databaseuntuk menghitung semua variabel kepelangganan dan independen yang digunakan dalam analisis regresi.Setelah penghapusan pengamatan dengan data yang hilang, ukuran sampel dikurangi3,436 perusahaan tahun pengamatan. Seperti Roychowdhury (2006), kami menghapus perusahaan diatur dalamindustri (SIC kode antara 4400 dan 5000) dan Bank dan lembaga keuangan(SIC kode antara 6000 dan 6500) untuk lebih jauh mengurangi sampel 3,136 perusahaan tahunpengamatan. Sebagai Roychowdhury (2006) menemukan bahwa perusahaan memanipulasi kegiatan nyataHindari melaporkan kerugian tahunan, kami membatasi sampel untuk perusahaan dengan positif kecilpenghasilan [3]. Ini menghasilkan sampel akhir 100 tahun perusahaan pengamatan selama bertahun-tahun 2007-2010.Kami secara manual mengumpulkan data audit komite dan Dewan karakteristik dengan meninjaudownload proxy pernyataan dari EDGAR database untuk perusahaan ini 100-tahunpengamatan. Panel meja saya laporan rincian sampel tahun. Ada 18, 24,38 dan 20 masing-masing perusahaan pada tahun 2007, 2008, 2009 dan 2010. B panel meja saya laporanbahwa ada 58 tahun perusahaan pengamatan pada industri manufaktur dan perusahaan-tahun 42pengamatan di non-manufaktur industri.4.2 pengukuran real penghasilan manajemenSeperti Roychowdhury (2006), kami mempertimbangkan tiga real penghasilan manipulasi pendekatan:(1) penjualan manipulasi;(2) pengurangan discretionary pengeluaran; dan(3) berlebihan.Penjualan manipulasi berarti bahwa manajer berusaha sementara meningkatkan penjualan selamatahun dengan menawarkan harga diskon atau lebih lunak persyaratan kredit. Pengurangandiscretionary pengeluaran berarti bahwa manajer mengurangi pengeluaran discretionarybiaya iklan, R & D biaya dan menjual, administrasi dan umumbiaya untuk meningkatkan penghasilan. Berlebihan berarti bahwa manajer meningkatkan penghasilandengan memproduksi lebih banyak unit barang daripada yang diperlukan untuk menurunkan biaya yang tetap per unit dankemudian biaya barang-barang yang dijual.Menawarkan harga diskon untuk meningkatkan penjualan hasil margin yang lebih rendah. Sebagai penurunan margin,Aliran kas per penjualan menjadi lebih rendah. Demikian pula, menawarkan persyaratan kredit lebih lunak sepertibunga yang lebih rendah (pembiayaan nol persen) mengarah ke arus kas masuk yang lebih rendah. Dengan demikian, penjualanmanipulasi kegiatan berhubungan dengan arus kas periode saat ini lebih rendah darioperasi daripada apa yang biasa diberikan tingkat penjualan. Ukuran kami pertama real penghasilanmanajemen adalah arus kas abnormal dari operasi (ACFOt), yang diperkirakan menggunakanregresi penampang berikut untuk setiap dua digit SIC industri dan tahun [4]:
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Research design

4.1 Sample selection
We begin to select firms included in the S&P 1500 index from the Compustat
Execucomp database for years 2007-2010 as CEO tenure needs to be computed using
the CEO data from this database. The Compustat Execucomp database provides the
data on CEO compensation, shareholding, beginning year of being CEO, etc. for those
firms. This procedure yields a raw sample of 5,037 firm-year observations. Next,
we collect the data from the Compustat North America database and the CRSP database
to compute all dependent and independent variables used in the regression analysis.
After the elimination of observations with missing data, the sample size is reduced to
3,436 firm-year observations. Like Roychowdhury (2006), we delete firms in regulated
industries (SIC codes between 4400 and 5000) and banks and financial institutions
(SIC codes between 6000 and 6500) to further reduce the sample to 3,136 firm-year
observations. As Roychowdhury (2006) finds that firms manipulate real activities to
avoid reporting annual losses, we restrict the sample to firms with small positive
earnings[3]. This yields a final sample of 100 firm-year observations for years 2007-2010.
We manually collect the data on audit committee and board characteristics by reviewing
proxy statements downloaded from the EDGAR database for these 100 firm-year
observations. Panel A of Table I reports the sample breakdown by year. There are 18, 24,
38 and 20 firms in 2007, 2008, 2009 and 2010, respectively. Panel B of Table I reports
that there are 58 firm-year observations in manufacturing industries and 42 firm-year
observations in non-manufacturing industries.

4.2 Measurement of real earnings management
Like Roychowdhury (2006), we consider three real earnings manipulation approaches:
(1) sales manipulation;
(2) reduction of discretionary expenditures; and
(3) overproduction.

Sales manipulation means that managers attempt to temporarily increase sales during
the year by offering price discounts or more lenient credit terms. Reduction of
discretionary expenditures means that managers reduce discretionary expenditures
such as advertising expenses, R&D expenses, and selling, general and administrative
expenses to increase earnings. Overproduction means that managers increase earnings
by producing more units of goods than necessary to lower fixed costs per unit and
thereafter cost of goods sold.

Offering price discounts to increase sales results in lower margins. As margins decline,
the cash inflow per sale becomes lower. Similarly, offering more lenient credit terms like
lower interest rates (zero-percent financing) leads to lower cash inflow. Thus, sales
manipulation activities are associated with lower current-period cash flows from
operations than what is normal given the sales level. Our first measure of real earnings
management is abnormal cash flows from operations (ACFOt), which are estimated using
the following cross-sectional regression for every two-digit SIC industry and year[4]:

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