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between shareholder rights and dividend policy. The‘‘outcome hypothesis’’ predicts that stronger rights willempower minority shareholders to obtain higher dividendpayouts, and the ‘‘substitute hypothesis’’ predicts thatweaker rights will lead to higher dividend payouts asmanagers use dividend payouts as a substitute for weakinvestor protection. They find that the outcome hypoth-esis explains the empirical linkages between the agencycosts of equity, minority shareholder rights, and observeddividend payouts. In a parallel manner, we posit that thesubstitute hypothesis will explain the connections be-tween the agency costs of debt, creditor rights, andobserved dividend payouts. Restrictive dividend policiessubstitute for weak creditor rights; that is, weak (strong)creditor rights diminish (enhance) the manager’s ability topay out dividends, all else equal.1In addition to confirm-ing the agency costs of debt version of the substitutehypothesis, our results also show that the agency costs ofdebt play a more pervasive role in dividend policiesaround the world than the agency costs of equity.There is considerable variation in creditor rights acrosscountries with similar legal origins and shareholderrights.2For example, the US, UK, Canada, and Australiaare all common law countries that tend to rank towardsthe top of the shareholder rights index. However, whilethe UK and Australia also rank towards the top of thecreditor rights index, the US and Canada rank towards thebottom. The resulting contrast in country-level dividendpolicies is instructive. The typical UK and Australian firmis 87% more likely to be a dividend-paying firm than its USand Canadian counterpart. Similarly, the typical UK andAustralian firm pays out almost 2.80 times more divi-dends (as a percent of sales) than its US and Canadiancounterpart. Weak creditor rights lead to lower dividendpayouts even after controlling for shareholder rights. Weconfirm this same pattern in subsequent tests using cross-sectional regressions, a much larger sample, and multiplecontrol variables.In their survey article,Denis and McConnell (2003)identifyLa Porta, Lopez-de-Silanes, Shleifer, and Vishny(1998)study as the beginning of a new generation ofresearch in international corporate governance. Numeroussubsequent studies have examined the economic con-sequences of a firm’s legal and institutional setting.Country-level shareholder rights have been linked tocorporate investment policies (Love, 2003); capital marketdevelopment (La Porta, Lopez-de-Silanes, Shleifer, andVishny1997;Morck, Yeung, and Yu, 2000;Wurgler, 2000);ownership structure (La Porta, Lopez-de-Silanes, Shleifer,and Vishny, 1998, 1999;Claessens, Djankov, and Lang,2000); expropriation (Johnson, La Porta, Lopez-de-Silanes,and Shleifer, 2000); corporate valuations (La Porta, Lope
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