3.1.7 Urbanization/industrialization and infra-structureExpanding citi terjemahan - 3.1.7 Urbanization/industrialization and infra-structureExpanding citi Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

3.1.7 Urbanization/industrializatio

3.1.7 Urbanization/industrialization and infra-structure
Expanding cities and towns require land to establish the infrastructures necessary to support growing population which is done by clearing the forests (Mather, 1991; Sands, 2005). Tropical forests are a major target of infra-structure developments for oil exploitation, logging concessions or hydropower dam construction which inevitably conveys the expansion of the road network and the construction of roads in pristine areas (Kaimowitz and Angelsen, 1998). The construction of roads, railways, bridges, and airports opens up the land to development and brings increasing numbers of people to the forest frontier. Whether supported or not by the governmental programmes, these settlers have usually colonized the forest by using logging trails or new roads to access the forest for subsistence land (Wilkie et al., 2000; Amor, 2008; Amor and Pfaff, 2008). (Wilkie et al., 2000; Amor, 2008; Amor and Pfaff, 2008). The development of these infrastructure projects are of worldwide concern, since tropical forest clearing accounts for roughly 20 per cent of anthropogenic carbon emissions destroying globally significant carbon sinks (Anon., 2001c ) and around 21 per cent of tropical forests have been lost worldwide since 1980 (Bawa et al., 2004).
3.1.8 Air pollution
Air pollution is associated with degradation of some European and North American forests. The syndrome is called “Waldsterben” or forest death. In 1982, eight per cent of all West German trees exhibited damage that rose to about 52 per cent by 1987 (Raloff, 1989) and half of the trees reported dying of Waldsterben in the Alps (Lean, 1990). High elevation forests show the earliest damage including forests in the north-east and central United States.
3.1.9 Wars and role of the military
It is well established that military operations caused deforestation during the Vietnam War and elsewhere (Mather, 1991; Sands, 2005). More recently, linkages have been documented between the civil war in Myanmar and the timber trade between Myanmar and Thailand. Myanmar regime sells timber to the Thais to finance its civil war against the Karen hill tribe. Forest destruction in El Salvador has resulted from war. Apart from military involvements in wars, the role of military in deforestation has been documented in Southeast Asia and South America (Mather, 1991; Sands, 2005). The authors also observed that role of powerful military in Brazilian politics are a major cause of Amazonian forest destruction.
3.1.10 Tourism
National parks and sanctuaries beyond doubt protect the forests, but uncautioned and improper opening of these areas to the public for tourism is damaging. Unfortunately, the national governments of tropical and sub-tropical countries adopt tourism for easy way of making money sacrificing the stringent management strategies. Further, many companies and resorts who advertise themselves as eco-tourist establishments are in fact exploiting the forests for profit. In Cape Tribulation, Australia, for example, the rain forest is being threatened by excessive tourism (Colchester and Lohmann, 1993). Similarly, in the Terai Duars of eastern India foothill Himalaya, eco-tourism is encouraged and we fear this is being done without developing adequate management plans. For instance, the Chilapatta Reserve Forest in this area is opened for eco-tourism for its ancient ruins deep in the forest and a tree species Myristica longifolia that exudes a blood like sap when injured. The site has become a popular eco-tourist destination because of the ruins and for this blood exuding tree. In the whole forest only eight individuals were found but two of the trees in the near vicinity of the ruins completely dried away due to repeated injuries caused to the plants by the curious tourists (Shukla, 2010). In fact, in the name of eco-tourism, infra-structure development is taking place mostly be the private players in these wilderness areas which are further detrimental in terms of attracting peoples other than tourists also, causing deforestation especially deep in the forest.
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3.1.7 Urbanization/industrialization and infra-structureExpanding cities and towns require land to establish the infrastructures necessary to support growing population which is done by clearing the forests (Mather, 1991; Sands, 2005). Tropical forests are a major target of infra-structure developments for oil exploitation, logging concessions or hydropower dam construction which inevitably conveys the expansion of the road network and the construction of roads in pristine areas (Kaimowitz and Angelsen, 1998). The construction of roads, railways, bridges, and airports opens up the land to development and brings increasing numbers of people to the forest frontier. Whether supported or not by the governmental programmes, these settlers have usually colonized the forest by using logging trails or new roads to access the forest for subsistence land (Wilkie et al., 2000; Amor, 2008; Amor and Pfaff, 2008). (Wilkie et al., 2000; Amor, 2008; Amor and Pfaff, 2008). The development of these infrastructure projects are of worldwide concern, since tropical forest clearing accounts for roughly 20 per cent of anthropogenic carbon emissions destroying globally significant carbon sinks (Anon., 2001c ) and around 21 per cent of tropical forests have been lost worldwide since 1980 (Bawa et al., 2004).3.1.8 Air pollutionAir pollution is associated with degradation of some European and North American forests. The syndrome is called “Waldsterben” or forest death. In 1982, eight per cent of all West German trees exhibited damage that rose to about 52 per cent by 1987 (Raloff, 1989) and half of the trees reported dying of Waldsterben in the Alps (Lean, 1990). High elevation forests show the earliest damage including forests in the north-east and central United States.3.1.9 Wars and role of the militaryIt is well established that military operations caused deforestation during the Vietnam War and elsewhere (Mather, 1991; Sands, 2005). More recently, linkages have been documented between the civil war in Myanmar and the timber trade between Myanmar and Thailand. Myanmar regime sells timber to the Thais to finance its civil war against the Karen hill tribe. Forest destruction in El Salvador has resulted from war. Apart from military involvements in wars, the role of military in deforestation has been documented in Southeast Asia and South America (Mather, 1991; Sands, 2005). The authors also observed that role of powerful military in Brazilian politics are a major cause of Amazonian forest destruction.3.1.10 TourismNational parks and sanctuaries beyond doubt protect the forests, but uncautioned and improper opening of these areas to the public for tourism is damaging. Unfortunately, the national governments of tropical and sub-tropical countries adopt tourism for easy way of making money sacrificing the stringent management strategies. Further, many companies and resorts who advertise themselves as eco-tourist establishments are in fact exploiting the forests for profit. In Cape Tribulation, Australia, for example, the rain forest is being threatened by excessive tourism (Colchester and Lohmann, 1993). Similarly, in the Terai Duars of eastern India foothill Himalaya, eco-tourism is encouraged and we fear this is being done without developing adequate management plans. For instance, the Chilapatta Reserve Forest in this area is opened for eco-tourism for its ancient ruins deep in the forest and a tree species Myristica longifolia that exudes a blood like sap when injured. The site has become a popular eco-tourist destination because of the ruins and for this blood exuding tree. In the whole forest only eight individuals were found but two of the trees in the near vicinity of the ruins completely dried away due to repeated injuries caused to the plants by the curious tourists (Shukla, 2010). In fact, in the name of eco-tourism, infra-structure development is taking place mostly be the private players in these wilderness areas which are further detrimental in terms of attracting peoples other than tourists also, causing deforestation especially deep in the forest.
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3.1.7 Urbanisasi / industrialisasi dan infra-struktur
Memperluas kota-kota membutuhkan lahan untuk membangun infrastruktur yang diperlukan untuk mendukung pertumbuhan populasi yang dilakukan dengan membersihkan hutan (Mather, 1991; Sands, 2005). Hutan tropis adalah target utama perkembangan infra-struktur untuk eksploitasi minyak, konsesi penebangan atau konstruksi bendungan tenaga air yang pasti menyampaikan perluasan jaringan jalan dan pembangunan jalan di daerah murni (Kaimowitz dan Angelsen, 1998). Pembangunan jalan, kereta api, jembatan, dan bandara membuka lahan bagi pembangunan dan membawa semakin banyak orang ke perbatasan hutan. Apakah didukung atau tidak oleh program pemerintah, pemukim ini biasanya dijajah hutan dengan menggunakan jalur penebangan atau jalan baru untuk mengakses hutan untuk lahan subsisten (Wilkie et al, 2000;. Amor, 2008; Amor dan Pfaff 2008). (Wilkie et al, 2000;. Amor, 2008; Amor dan Pfaff 2008). Pengembangan proyek infrastruktur ini menjadi perhatian seluruh dunia, karena pembukaan hutan tropis menyumbang sekitar 20 persen dari emisi karbon antropogenik menghancurkan penyerap karbon yang signifikan secara global (Anon., 2001c) dan sekitar 21 persen dari hutan tropis telah hilang di seluruh dunia sejak tahun 1980 (Bawa et al., 2004).
3.1.8 Polusi udara
Polusi udara dikaitkan dengan penurunan beberapa hutan Eropa dan Amerika Utara. Sindrom ini disebut "Waldsterben" atau kematian hutan. Pada tahun 1982, delapan persen dari semua pohon Jerman Barat menunjukkan kerusakan yang meningkat menjadi sekitar 52 persen pada tahun 1987 (Raloff, 1989) dan setengah dari pohon dilaporkan sekarat Waldsterben di Pegunungan Alpen (Ramping, 1990). Hutan elevasi tinggi menunjukkan kerusakan awal termasuk hutan di utara-timur dan tengah Amerika Serikat.
3.1.9 Wars dan peran militer
Hal ini juga ditetapkan bahwa operasi militer menyebabkan deforestasi selama Perang Vietnam dan tempat lain (Mather, 1991; Sands, 2005). Baru-baru ini, hubungan telah didokumentasikan antara perang sipil di Myanmar dan perdagangan kayu antara Myanmar dan Thailand. Rezim Myanmar menjual kayu ke Thailand untuk membiayai perang saudara melawan suku Karen bukit. Perusakan hutan di El Salvador telah dihasilkan dari perang. Terlepas dari keterlibatan militer dalam perang, peran militer dalam deforestasi telah didokumentasikan di Asia Tenggara dan Amerika Selatan (Mather, 1991; Sands, 2005). Para penulis juga mengamati bahwa peran militer yang kuat dalam politik Brasil adalah penyebab utama kerusakan hutan Amazon.
3.1.10 Pariwisata
Taman Nasional dan tempat-tempat suci diragukan melindungi hutan, namun pembukaan uncautioned dan tidak tepat daerah-daerah kepada publik untuk pariwisata merusak . Sayangnya, pemerintah nasional negara-negara tropis dan sub-tropis mengadopsi pariwisata untuk memudahkan cara untuk membuat uang mengorbankan strategi manajemen yang ketat. Selanjutnya, banyak perusahaan dan resort yang mengiklankan diri mereka sebagai lembaga eko-wisata sebenarnya memanfaatkan hutan untuk keuntungan. Di Cape Tribulation, Australia, misalnya, hutan hujan sedang terancam oleh pariwisata yang berlebihan (Colchester dan Lohmann, 1993). Demikian pula, di Terai Duar dari India timur kaki bukit Himalaya, ekowisata didorong dan kita takut ini sedang dilakukan tanpa mengembangkan rencana pengelolaan yang memadai. Misalnya, Chilapatta Cagar Hutan di daerah ini dibuka untuk ekowisata untuk reruntuhan kuno jauh di dalam hutan dan spesies pohon Myristica longifolia yang memancarkan darah seperti getah bila terluka. Situs ini telah menjadi tujuan eco-wisata populer karena reruntuhan dan untuk ini pohon memancarkan darah. Di seluruh hutan hanya delapan orang ditemukan tapi dua dari pohon-pohon di sekitar dekat reruntuhan benar-benar kering jauh karena cedera berulang yang terjadi pada tanaman oleh para wisatawan penasaran (Shukla, 2010). Bahkan, atas nama eko-wisata, pengembangan infra-struktur berlangsung sebagian besar menjadi pemain swasta di daerah padang gurun ini yang lebih merugikan dalam hal menarik orang lain selain wisatawan juga, menyebabkan deforestasi terutama jauh di dalam hutan.
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