Despite these limitations, the Emissions Trading Program fared well in terjemahan - Despite these limitations, the Emissions Trading Program fared well in Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

Despite these limitations, the Emis

Despite these limitations, the Emissions Trading Program fared well in both environmental
effectiveness and economic efficiency. According to Rehbinder and Stewart (1985), trading has
produced at least as high an ambient air quality as direct regulations and at a much lower cost (as the savings of $5-12 billion reported above suggests). In contrast to “technology forcing” implied by the strict technology requirements of the Clean Air Act, emissions trading allows plant operators the flexibility to choose the technologies most suitable to their own circumstances, to come up with their own inventive technological solutions, and to go beyond the minimum requirements of the imposed standards to control pollution for profit.
An outcome of emissions trading of particular relevance to developing countries is that it allowed the construction of a large number of new plants in highly polluted areas without increasing pollution levels; an outcome that would not have been possible with direct regulations. (The substantial data and monitoring requirements of emissions trading and their implication for developing countries will be addressed below.) Developing countries cannot afford to retard their industrialization and economic development through inflexible and costly regulations or mandated technology standards. Emissions trading offers industrial firms the option to avoid meeting stringent emission standards for new plants by reducing emissions in existing plants or purchasing emission credits from other firms that can reduce their emissions at lower costs. On the negative side, the administrative costs of the U.S. emissions trading system have been high because the system evolved from efforts to enforce direct regulations rather than from a clear definition and allocation of pollution rights. The replacement of the
requirement for approval of abatement technologies by the requirement for approval of emissions
trading transactions did not reduce the involvement of the regulators and the administrative costs. It did, however, shift decisions about the choice of abatement technology and its location from regulators to plant operators.
In developing countries, an emissions trading system would be further limited by the high monitoring of, and transaction costs between, a large number of small firms, many of which are unregistered. Yet there is no reason why an emissions trading system could not be applied to public utilities, multinationals, large local firms, and industrial estates, while small sources may be controlled by a system that targets fuel use rather than emissions. The main limitation is that emissions trading does not apply to more than one pollutant simultaneously, unless some equivalence index is developed (OECD, 1991).
Another environmental market creation was the EPA lead trading program during 1982-87. Gasoline
refiners were given the flexibility to produce gasoline with a lower or higher lead content than the level mandated by the standard: those with lower-than-standard lead content accumulated lead credits that they could sell or bank for future use; those with higher-than-standard lead content could use past lead credits or purchase them from other firms. About 15% of total lead rights were traded and 35% were banked and traded or used later on. The EPA estimates the annual savings from lead trading to be US$200 million. This means that the lead standard mandated by direct regulations was attained at a cost that was 20% lower with trading than without trading (EPA 1985). There are good reasons why lead trading has been more successful than other emissions trading. First, there was consensus about the objective: the phasing out of lead in gasoline. Second, lead in gasoline can be easily monitored both technically and administratively, involving a relatively small number of refineries. Third,
the content of the right that was traded was well-defined, the programs had a known fixed life, and no complex approval process for the trading was required.
Tradeable permit programs have also been used in controlling water pollution in the U.S. There are two notable cases: (a) the Wisconsin Fox River water permits for point pollution sources and (b) the Colorado Dillon Reservoir water permits for non-point pollution sources.
In the early 1980s, the state of Wisconsin issued discharge permits to 14 paper mills and four
wastewater treatment plants discharging effluents into the Fox River. The permits were issued only for reductions of BOD discharges exceeding the levels required by treatment standards. Trading of permits was allowed in order to give firms more flexibility in controlling and treating their effluents.
Despite estimates of potential cost savings of up to US$7 million per year, no trading has taken place thus far. The reasons are many and varied. First, the oligopolistic structure of the pulp and paper industry and the regulated public utility status of the waste treatment plants limit competition. Second, the required justification of the need for permits and the requirement for modification or re-issuance of permits after every transaction create high transaction costs that discourage the trading of permits.
Third, the five-year fixed life of the permits and the lack of an established process for reallocation create uncertainty about both the value of the permits and the effect of trading on their future allocation (Hahn, 1991).
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Despite these limitations, the Emissions Trading Program fared well in both environmentaleffectiveness and economic efficiency. According to Rehbinder and Stewart (1985), trading hasproduced at least as high an ambient air quality as direct regulations and at a much lower cost (as the savings of $5-12 billion reported above suggests). In contrast to “technology forcing” implied by the strict technology requirements of the Clean Air Act, emissions trading allows plant operators the flexibility to choose the technologies most suitable to their own circumstances, to come up with their own inventive technological solutions, and to go beyond the minimum requirements of the imposed standards to control pollution for profit.An outcome of emissions trading of particular relevance to developing countries is that it allowed the construction of a large number of new plants in highly polluted areas without increasing pollution levels; an outcome that would not have been possible with direct regulations. (The substantial data and monitoring requirements of emissions trading and their implication for developing countries will be addressed below.) Developing countries cannot afford to retard their industrialization and economic development through inflexible and costly regulations or mandated technology standards. Emissions trading offers industrial firms the option to avoid meeting stringent emission standards for new plants by reducing emissions in existing plants or purchasing emission credits from other firms that can reduce their emissions at lower costs. On the negative side, the administrative costs of the U.S. emissions trading system have been high because the system evolved from efforts to enforce direct regulations rather than from a clear definition and allocation of pollution rights. The replacement of therequirement for approval of abatement technologies by the requirement for approval of emissionstrading transactions did not reduce the involvement of the regulators and the administrative costs. It did, however, shift decisions about the choice of abatement technology and its location from regulators to plant operators.In developing countries, an emissions trading system would be further limited by the high monitoring of, and transaction costs between, a large number of small firms, many of which are unregistered. Yet there is no reason why an emissions trading system could not be applied to public utilities, multinationals, large local firms, and industrial estates, while small sources may be controlled by a system that targets fuel use rather than emissions. The main limitation is that emissions trading does not apply to more than one pollutant simultaneously, unless some equivalence index is developed (OECD, 1991).Another environmental market creation was the EPA lead trading program during 1982-87. Gasolinerefiners were given the flexibility to produce gasoline with a lower or higher lead content than the level mandated by the standard: those with lower-than-standard lead content accumulated lead credits that they could sell or bank for future use; those with higher-than-standard lead content could use past lead credits or purchase them from other firms. About 15% of total lead rights were traded and 35% were banked and traded or used later on. The EPA estimates the annual savings from lead trading to be US$200 million. This means that the lead standard mandated by direct regulations was attained at a cost that was 20% lower with trading than without trading (EPA 1985). There are good reasons why lead trading has been more successful than other emissions trading. First, there was consensus about the objective: the phasing out of lead in gasoline. Second, lead in gasoline can be easily monitored both technically and administratively, involving a relatively small number of refineries. Third,the content of the right that was traded was well-defined, the programs had a known fixed life, and no complex approval process for the trading was required.Tradeable permit programs have also been used in controlling water pollution in the U.S. There are two notable cases: (a) the Wisconsin Fox River water permits for point pollution sources and (b) the Colorado Dillon Reservoir water permits for non-point pollution sources.In the early 1980s, the state of Wisconsin issued discharge permits to 14 paper mills and fourwastewater treatment plants discharging effluents into the Fox River. The permits were issued only for reductions of BOD discharges exceeding the levels required by treatment standards. Trading of permits was allowed in order to give firms more flexibility in controlling and treating their effluents.Despite estimates of potential cost savings of up to US$7 million per year, no trading has taken place thus far. The reasons are many and varied. First, the oligopolistic structure of the pulp and paper industry and the regulated public utility status of the waste treatment plants limit competition. Second, the required justification of the need for permits and the requirement for modification or re-issuance of permits after every transaction create high transaction costs that discourage the trading of permits.Third, the five-year fixed life of the permits and the lack of an established process for reallocation create uncertainty about both the value of the permits and the effect of trading on their future allocation (Hahn, 1991).
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Meskipun keterbatasan ini, Program Perdagangan Emisi bernasib baik di kedua lingkungan
efektivitas dan efisiensi ekonomi. Menurut Rehbinder dan Stewart (1985), perdagangan telah
menghasilkan setidaknya sama tinggi kualitas udara ambien peraturan langsung dan dengan biaya yang jauh lebih rendah (sebagai tabungan dari $ 5-12000000000 dilaporkan di atas menunjukkan). Berbeda dengan "teknologi memaksa" tersirat oleh persyaratan teknologi yang ketat dari Clean Air Act, perdagangan emisi memungkinkan operator pabrik fleksibilitas untuk memilih teknologi yang paling cocok dengan keadaan mereka sendiri, untuk datang dengan solusi teknologi inventif mereka sendiri, dan untuk pergi . melampaui persyaratan minimum standar yang diberlakukan untuk mengontrol polusi untuk keuntungan
Sebuah hasil perdagangan emisi relevansi khusus bagi negara-negara berkembang adalah bahwa hal itu memungkinkan pembangunan sejumlah besar tanaman baru di daerah sangat tercemar tanpa meningkatkan tingkat polusi; suatu hasil yang tidak akan mungkin terjadi dengan peraturan langsung. (Data substansial dan persyaratan pemantauan perdagangan emisi dan implikasinya untuk negara-negara berkembang akan dibahas di bawah ini.) Negara-negara berkembang tidak mampu untuk menghambat industrialisasi dan pembangunan ekonomi melalui peraturan tidak fleksibel dan mahal atau standar teknologi diamanatkan. Perdagangan emisi menawarkan perusahaan industri pilihan untuk menghindari memenuhi standar emisi ketat untuk pabrik baru dengan mengurangi emisi di pabrik yang ada atau membeli kredit emisi dari perusahaan lain yang dapat mengurangi emisi mereka dengan biaya yang lebih rendah. Di sisi negatif, biaya administrasi dari sistem perdagangan emisi AS telah tinggi karena sistem berevolusi dari upaya untuk menegakkan peraturan langsung daripada dari definisi yang jelas dan alokasi hak polusi. Penggantian
persyaratan untuk persetujuan teknologi pengurangan oleh persyaratan untuk persetujuan emisi
transaksi perdagangan tidak mengurangi keterlibatan regulator dan biaya administrasi. Hal itu, bagaimanapun, menggeser keputusan tentang pilihan teknologi pengurangan dan lokasi dari regulator untuk menanam operator.
Di negara berkembang, sistem perdagangan emisi akan lebih dibatasi oleh pengawasan yang tinggi, dan biaya transaksi antara, sejumlah besar kecil perusahaan, banyak yang tidak terdaftar. Namun tidak ada alasan mengapa sistem perdagangan emisi tidak bisa diterapkan pada utilitas publik, perusahaan multinasional, perusahaan lokal yang besar, dan kawasan industri, sementara sumber-sumber kecil dapat dikendalikan oleh sistem yang menargetkan penggunaan bahan bakar daripada emisi. Keterbatasan utama adalah bahwa perdagangan emisi tidak berlaku untuk lebih dari satu polutan secara bersamaan, kecuali beberapa indeks kesetaraan dikembangkan (OECD, 1991).
penciptaan lain pasar lingkungan adalah program perdagangan memimpin EPA selama 1982-1987. Bensin
penyuling diberi fleksibilitas untuk menghasilkan bensin dengan kandungan timbal yang lebih rendah atau lebih tinggi dari tingkat diamanatkan oleh standar: mereka dengan kandungan timbal akumulasi kredit timbal lebih rendah dari standar yang mereka bisa menjual atau bank untuk penggunaan masa depan; mereka dengan kandungan timbal yang lebih tinggi dari standar bisa menggunakan kredit memimpin masa lalu atau membelinya dari perusahaan lain. Sekitar 15% dari hak timbal keseluruhan diperdagangkan dan 35% yang membelok dan diperdagangkan atau digunakan di kemudian hari. EPA memperkirakan penghematan tahunan dari perdagangan timah menjadi US $ 200 juta. Ini berarti bahwa standar memimpin diamanatkan oleh peraturan langsung yang didapat dengan biaya yang 20% lebih rendah dengan perdagangan daripada tanpa perdagangan (EPA 1985). Ada alasan bagus mengapa perdagangan timbal telah lebih berhasil daripada perdagangan emisi lainnya. Pertama, terdapat konsensus tentang tujuan: pentahapan dari timbal dalam bensin. Kedua, timbal dalam bensin dapat dengan mudah dipantau baik secara teknis maupun administratif, yang melibatkan jumlah yang relatif kecil dari kilang. Ketiga,
isi hak yang diperdagangkan itu didefinisikan dengan baik, program memiliki kehidupan tetap dikenal, dan tidak ada proses persetujuan yang kompleks untuk perdagangan diharuskan.
Program izin Tradeable juga telah digunakan dalam pengendalian pencemaran air di AS Ada dua kasus penting: (a) izin air Wisconsin Fox River untuk sumber pencemaran titik dan (b) izin air Colorado Dillon Reservoir untuk sumber polusi non-point.
Pada awal 1980-an, negara bagian Wisconsin mengeluarkan izin pembuangan ke 14 pabrik kertas dan empat
pabrik pengolahan air limbah pemakaian limbah ke Sungai Fox. Izin yang dikeluarkan hanya untuk pengurangan debit BOD melebihi tingkat yang dipersyaratkan oleh standar pengobatan. Perdagangan izin diizinkan untuk memberikan perusahaan lebih banyak fleksibilitas dalam mengontrol dan mengobati limbah mereka.
Meskipun perkiraan potensi penghematan biaya hingga US $ 7 juta per tahun, tidak ada perdagangan telah terjadi sejauh ini. Alasan banyak dan beragam. Pertama, struktur oligopolistik dari industri pulp dan kertas dan diatur Status utilitas publik dari pabrik pengolahan limbah membatasi kompetisi. Kedua, pembenaran yang diperlukan tentang perlunya izin dan persyaratan untuk modifikasi atau re-penerbitan izin setelah setiap transaksi membuat biaya transaksi yang tinggi yang mencegah perdagangan izin.
Ketiga, lima tahun hidup tetap izin dan kurangnya proses didirikan untuk realokasi menciptakan ketidakpastian tentang kedua nilai izin dan pengaruh perdagangan terhadap alokasi masa depan mereka (Hahn, 1991).
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