• Culture can affect technology tra

• Culture can affect technology transfer, managerial attitudes, managerial ideology and even business government relationships.

• Culture affects how people think and behave.

• The cultural impact on international management is reflected by basic beliefs and behaviours.

• Culture of society can directly affect management approaches:

• Centralized vs. decentralized decision making. In some societies, top managers make all important organizational decisions. In others, these decisions are diffused throughout the enterprise, and middle- and lower-level managers actively participate in, and make, key decisions.

• Safety vs. risk. In some societies, organizational decision makers are riskaverse and have great difficulty with conditions of uncertainty. In others, risk taking is encouraged, and decision making under uncertainty is common.

• Individual vs. group rewards. In some countries, personnel who do outstanding work are given individual rewards in the form of bonuses and commissions. In others, cultural norms require group rewards, and individual rewards are frowned on.

• Informal vs. formal procedures. In some societies, much is accomplished through informal means. In others, formal procedures are set forth and followed rigidly.

• High vs. low organizational loyalty. In some societies, people identify very strongly with their organization or employer. In others, people identify with their occupational group, such as engineer or mechanic.

• Cooperation vs. competition. Some societies encourage cooperation between their people. Others encourage competition between their people.

• Short-term vs. long-term horizons. Some cultures focus most heavily on shortterm horizons, such as short-range goals of profit and efficiency. Others are more interested in long-range goals, such as market share and technologic development.

• Stability vs. innovation. The culture of some countries encourages stability and resistance to change. The culture of others puts high value on innovation and change.

Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 2:

• Budaya dapat mempengaruhi transfer teknologi, sikap manajerial, ideologi manajerial dan bahkan hubungan pemerintah bisnis. • Budaya mempengaruhi bagaimana orang berpikir dan berperilaku. • Dampak budaya pada manajemen internasional tercermin oleh keyakinan dasar dan perilaku. • Budaya masyarakat dapat secara langsung mempengaruhi manajemen pendekatan: • Sentralisasi vs pengambilan keputusan terdesentralisasi. Dalam beberapa masyarakat, manajer puncak membuat semua keputusan organisasi penting. Di lain, keputusan ini disebarkan di seluruh perusahaan, dan manajer menengah dan bawah tingkat aktif berpartisipasi dalam, dan membuat, keputusan penting. • Keselamatan vs risiko. Dalam beberapa masyarakat, pengambil keputusan organisasi yang riskaverse dan mengalami kesulitan besar dengan kondisi ketidakpastian. Di lain, pengambilan risiko didorong, dan pengambilan keputusan di bawah ketidakpastian umum. • Individu vs imbalan kelompok. Di beberapa negara, personel yang melakukan pekerjaan luar biasa yang diberikan imbalan individu dalam bentuk bonus dan komisi. Pada orang lain, norma-norma budaya memerlukan imbalan kelompok, dan penghargaan individu disukai. • Informal vs prosedur formal. Dalam beberapa masyarakat, banyak yang dicapai melalui cara-cara informal. Di lain, prosedur formal yang ditetapkan dan diikuti secara kaku. • Tinggi vs loyalitas organisasi rendah. Dalam beberapa masyarakat, orang mengidentifikasi sangat kuat dengan organisasi atau majikan mereka. Pada orang lain, orang mengidentifikasi dengan kelompok kerja mereka, seperti insinyur atau mekanik. • Kerjasama vs kompetisi. Beberapa masyarakat mendorong kerja sama antara orang-orang mereka. Lainnya mendorong persaingan antara orang-orang mereka. • jangka pendek vs cakrawala jangka panjang. Beberapa budaya fokus yang paling berat pada cakrawala jangka pendek, seperti tujuan jarak pendek dari keuntungan dan efisiensi. Lain lebih tertarik pada tujuan jangka panjang, seperti pangsa pasar dan pengembangan Technologic. • Stabilitas vs inovasi. Budaya beberapa negara mendorong stabilitas dan resistensi terhadap perubahan. Budaya lain menempatkan nilai tinggi pada inovasi dan perubahan.