Eugenics has, from the very beginni

Eugenics has, from the very beginning, meant
many different things. [ citation needed]
Historically, the term has referred to
everything from prenatal care for mothers to
forced sterilization and
euthanasia . [ citation needed ] To population
geneticists , the term has included the
avoidance of inbreeding without altering allele
frequencies ; for example, J. B. S. Haldane
wrote that "the motor bus, by breaking up
inbred village communities, was a powerful
eugenic agent". [52] Debate as to what exactly
counts as eugenics has continued to the
present day. [53] Some types of eugenics deal
only with perceived beneficial or detrimental
genetic traits. These types have sometimes
been called "pseudo-eugenics" by proponents
of strict eugenics. [ citation needed ][ who? ]
The term eugenics is often used to refer to
movements and social policies influential
during the early 20th century. [ citation needed]
In a historical and broader sense, eugenics
can also be a study of "improving human
genetic qualities." It is sometimes broadly
applied to describe any human action whose
goal is to improve the gene
pool . [ citation needed] Some forms of
infanticide in ancient societies, present-day
reprogenetics , preemptive abortions and
designer babies have been (sometimes
controversially) referred to as
eugenic. [ by whom?] Because of its normative
goals and historical association with scientific
racism , as well as the development of the
science of genetics , the western scientific
community [ according to whom?] has mostly
disassociated itself from the term "eugenics",
although one can find advocates of what is
now known as liberal
eugenics .[ citation needed ] Despite its ongoing
criticism [ by whom?] in the United States,
several regions [ according to whom? ] globally
practice different forms of eugenics.
Edwin Black, journalist and author of War
Against the Weak , claims eugenics is often
deemed a pseudoscience because what is
defined as a genetic improvement or a
desired trait is often a cultural choice rather
than a matter that can be determined through
objective scientific inquiry. [54] The most
disputed aspect of eugenics has been the
definition of "improvement" of the human
gene pool, such as what is a beneficial
characteristic and what is a defect. This
aspect of eugenics has historically been
tainted with scientific racism.
Early eugenists were mostly concerned with
perceived intelligence factors that often
correlated strongly with social class . Some of
these early eugenists include Karl Pearson
and Walter Weldon, who worked on this at the
University College, London.[10] Many
eugenists took inspiration from the selective
breeding of animals (where purebreds are
often striven for) as their analogy for improving
human society. The mixing of races (or
miscegenation) was usually considered as
something to be avoided in the name of racial
purity. At the time this concept appeared to
have some scientific support [ by whom? ] , and
it remained a contentious issue until the
advanced development of genetics led to a
scientific consensus that the division of the
human species into unequal races is
unjustifiable. [ citation needed ]
Eugenics also had a place in medicine. In his
lecture "Darwinism, Medical Progress and
Eugenics", Karl Pearson said that everything
concerning eugenics fell into the field of
medicine. He basically placed the two words
as equivalents. He was supported in part by
the fact that Francis Galton, the father of
eugenics, also had medical training. [55]
Eugenics has also been concerned with the
elimination of hereditary diseases such as
hemophilia and Huntington's disease.
However, there are several problems with
labeling certain factors as genetic defects. In
many cases there is no scientific consensus
on what constitutes a genetic
defect. [ citation needed ] It is often
argued [ by whom? ] that this is more a matter
of social or individual choice. What appears
to be a genetic defect in one context or
environment may not be so in another. This
can be the case for genes with a heterozygote
advantage , such as sickle-cell disease or Tay-
Sachs disease, which in their heterozygote
form may offer an advantage against,
respectively, malaria and tuberculosis.
Although some birth defects are uniformly
lethal, disabled persons can succeed in
life. [ citation needed ] Many of the conditions
early eugenists identified as inheritable
( pellagra is one such example) are currently
considered to be at least partially, if not
wholly, attributed to environmental
conditions. [ citation needed ] Similar concerns
have been raised[ by whom?] when a prenatal
diagnosis of a congenital disorder leads to
abortion (see also preimplantation genetic
diagnosis ).
Eugenic policies have been conceptually
divided into two categories. Positive eugenics
is aimed at encouraging reproduction among
the genetically advantaged,for example the
reproduction of the intelligent, the healthy,
and the successful.[56] Possible approaches
include financial and political stimuli, targeted
demographic analyses, in vitro fertilization,
egg transplants, and cloning. [57] Negative
eugenics aimed to eliminate, through
sterilization or segregation, those deemed
physically, mentally, or morally "undesirable".
[56] This includes abortions, sterilization, and
other methods of family planning. [57] Both
positive and negative eugenics can be
coercive. Abortion for fit women was illegal in
Nazi Germany. [58]

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Egenetika, dari awal, berartibanyak hal yang berbeda. [rujukan?]Secara historis, istilah telah disebutsegala sesuatu dari perawatan pralahir bagi ibu untukdipaksa sterilisasi daneutanasia. [rujukan?] Populasiahli genetika, istilah sudah termasukpenghindaran perkembangbiakan tanpa mengubah alelfrekuensi; sebagai contoh, J. B. S. Haldanemenulis bahwa "motor bus, oleh putusinbrida masyarakat desa, adalah kuateugenic agen". [52] perdebatan tentang apa persisdianggap sebagai egenetika terushari ini. [53] beberapa jenis egenetika berurusanhanya dengan dianggap menguntungkan atau merugikansifat-sifat genetik. Jenis ini memiliki kadang-kadangdisebut "pseudo egenetika" oleh para pendukungdari egenetika ketat. [rujukan?][siapa?]Egenetika istilah ini sering digunakan untuk merujuk kepadagerakan dan berpengaruh kebijakan-kebijakan sosialselama awal abad 20. [rujukan?]Dalam arti sejarah dan lebih luas, egenetikajuga dapat menjadi sebuah studi "meningkatkan manusiagenetik kualitas." Ini adalah kadang-kadang luasditerapkan untuk menggambarkan tindakan manusia yangTujuannya adalah untuk meningkatkan genkolam renang. [rujukan?] Beberapa bentukpembunuhan bayi dalam masyarakat kuno, sekarangreprogenetics, aborsi preventif danDesigner bayi telah (kadang-kadangkontroversial) disebut sebagaieugenic. [oleh siapa?] Karena yang normatiftujuan dan sejarah asosiasi dengan ilmiahrasisme, serta pengembanganilmu genetika, Barat ilmiahmasyarakat [menurut siapa?] memiliki sebagian besarberhubungan sendiri dari istilah "egenetika",Meskipun seseorang dapat menemukan pendukung apasekarang dikenal sebagai liberalegenetika.[rujukan?] Meskipun teruskritik [oleh siapa?] di Amerika Serikat,beberapa daerah [menurut siapa?] secara globalpraktek berbagai bentuk egenetika.Edwin Black, wartawan dan penulis perangTerhadap orang yang lemah, egenetika klaim adalah seringdianggap ilmu semu karena apadidefinisikan sebagai perbaikan genetik atausifat yang diinginkan adalah sering pilihan budaya yang agakdaripada hal yang dapat ditentukan melaluitujuan penyelidikan ilmiah. [54] yang palingdiperdebatkan aspek egenetika telahdefinisi "perbaikan" manusiaKolam gen, seperti apa yang bermanfaatKarakteristik dan apa adalah Cacat. Iniaspek egenetika secara historistercemar dengan rasisme ilmiah.Eugenists awal prihatin dengandianggap faktor intelijen yang seringberkorelasi kuat dengan kelas sosial. Beberapaeugenists awal ini termasuk Karl Pearsondan Walter Weldon, yang bekerja diUniversity College, London.[10] banyakeugenists mengambil inspirasi dari selektifPemuliaan hewan (di mana purebreds adalahsering berjuang untuk) sebagai analogi mereka untuk meningkatkanmasyarakat manusia. Pencampuran ras (atauMiscegenation) biasanya dianggap sebagaisesuatu yang harus dihindari dalam nama rasialkemurnian. Pada saat konsep ini tampaknyamemiliki beberapa dukungan ilmiah [oleh siapa?], dantetap sebuah isu sampaiperkembangan genetika menyebabkan majukonsensus ilmiah yang pembagianspesies manusia menjadi tidak seimbang rasdibenarkan. [rujukan?]Egenetika juga memiliki tempat dalam pengobatan. Dalamkuliah "ideologi Darwin, kemajuan medis danKata Karl Pearson egenetika", bahwa semuamengenai egenetika jatuh ke bidangobat. Ia pada dasarnya menempatkan dua katasebagai setara. Dia didukung sebagian olehfakta bahwa Francis Galton, ayah dariegenetika, juga memiliki pelatihan medis. [55]Egenetika juga prihatin denganpenghapusan penyakit keturunan sepertihemofilia dan penyakit Huntington.Namun, ada beberapa masalah denganpelabelan faktor-faktor tertentu sebagai Cacat genetik. Dalamada banyak kasus adalah tidak ada konsensus ilmiahpada apa yang merupakan genetikCacat. [rujukan?] Hal ini seringberpendapat [oleh siapa?] Hal ini lebih merupakan masalahpilihan sosial atau individu. Apa yang munculmenjadi Cacat genetik dalam satu konteks ataulingkungan mungkin tidak akan begitu lain. Inidapat terjadi untuk gen dengan heterozygotekeuntungan, seperti penyakit sel sabit atau Tay-Penyakit Sachs, yang dalam heterozygote merekabentuk mungkin menawarkan keunggulan terhadap,masing-masing, malaria dan TBC.Meskipun beberapa cacat lahir yang seragammematikan, Penyandang Cacat orang bisa sukses dalamkehidupan. [rujukan?] Banyak kondisiawal eugenists diidentifikasi sebagai diwariskan(pellagra adalah salah satu contoh) saat inidianggap setidaknya sebagian, jika tidaksecara keseluruhannya, dikaitkan dengan lingkungankondisi. [rujukan?] Kekhawatiran yang samatelah dibesarkan [oleh siapa?] ketika prenataldiagnosis gangguan bawaan mengarahaborsi (Lihat juga preimplantation genetikdiagnosis).Kebijakan eugenic telah secara konseptualdibagi menjadi dua kategori. Egenetika positifini bertujuan untuk mendorong reproduksi antaragenetik advantaged, misalnyareproduksi yang cerdas, sehat,dan yang sukses.[56] mungkin pendekatantermasuk rangsangan keuangan dan politik, ditargetkanbeberapa analisis demografi, fertilisasi in vitro,transplantasi telur, dan kloning. [57] negatifegenetika bertujuan untuk menghilangkan, melaluisterilisasi atau pemisahan, mereka yang dianggapfisik, mental, atau moral "tidak diinginkan".[56] ini termasuk aborsi, sterilisasi, danmetode lain untuk keluarga berencana. [57]egenetika positif dan negatif dapatkoersif. Aborsi untuk wanita cocok adalah ilegal diJerman Nazi. [58]