The Limits of Administrative DiscretionTwo other questions are closely terjemahan - The Limits of Administrative DiscretionTwo other questions are closely Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

The Limits of Administrative Discre

The Limits of Administrative Discretion
Two other questions are closely related to the efficiency responsiveness issues the limits of administrative discretion and avenues for public participation in administrative decision making. We have noted that administrators take their primary cues from the actions of legislatures that initiate programs and from executives who are charged with carrying out the programs. If you are hired to manage a new agency, one of your first priorities will be to familiarize yourself with the legislation that created the agency and with an executive orders or other directives outlining the agency’s responsibilities. But if your situation is typical, you will find that neither the legislation nor the directions you receive fom the executive are sufficiently detailed to answer all the questions your work raises. There will be a need to develop policies regarding these isues; policies that are, in effect, merely more detailed pieces of “legislation”. In addition, as you get into the work, you may find it necessary to ask the legislature or the thief executive to make certain changes in the rules and regulations under which you operate.
The problem, of course, is to make sure that your policies or recommendations for change are consistent with the wishes of the citizenry. In most jurisdictions, of course, the legislature and the chief executive are popularly elected, and their reelection depends on their response to the public’s perceived needs and interests. For them, the electoral process assures responsiveness, at least in theory. As long as you are acting in a way that is clearly consistent with legislative intent, you are likely to be considered appropriately responsive. But because most situation aren’t that clear, the question becomes, “How can we assure that the administrator is exercising discretion in a way consistent with the will of the people, whether expressed in the Constitution, the laws of the land, or the preferences of citizens?
Historically, two answers have been posed to this question. In an important debate in the pages of the public administration review and other journals some forty years ago. Herman Finer argued that, to maintain responsiveness to the public, managers in public organizations should be subjected to strict and rigid controls by the legislature. His question was straightforward ( though perhaps overdrawn) : “Are the servants of the public to decide their own course, or is their course of action to be decide by a body outside themselves?” ( Finer,1972,p.328). His answer was equally direct: only through specific and detailed legislation carefully limiting of the work of public managers could responsiveness to the legislature be maintained. This interpretion of how to assure responsiveness is often called objective responsibility, depending as it does on objective external controls.
Carl Friedrich, on the other hand, argued that the increasing complexity of modern society made, such detailed legislation difficult, if not impossible: consequently, Friedrich felt that the administrator’s own concern for the public interest was often the only real assurance that his or her actions would be responsive to the electorate. Fortunately, wrote Friedrich, the growing number of professionals in government increase the likelihood that a sense of democratic responsibility will be a part of the administrator’s make-up ( Friedrich, 1972 ).
Others, following Friedrich’s lead, noted the growing number of governemental officials receiving training in schools of public affairs and public administration. These schools take quite seriously the need to expose students to the ethical issues they may encounter in public organizations and to ways these issues might be resolved. This way of assuring responsiveness is often called subjective responsibility, depending as it does on the subjective nature of the individual.
One approach to assuring responsiveness that cuts across the objective/subjective distinction is representative bureaucracy the idea that public agencies whose employees reflect certain demographic characteristics of the population as a whole are likely to operate more in line with the policy preferences of the general citizenry. According to this view, an agency with a substantial number of women and minorities employees is more likely to take into account the views of women and minorities in the population than would an agency of white males. Experience with representative bureaucracy has produced mixed results. Whereas we might indeed expect greater responsiveness with respect to race and gender in the example, there is no reason to think that such an agency would be more or less representative on other types of issues. Moreover, there is no real assurance that a person from one particular group would necessarily or always reflect that group’s policy preferences. Those preferences might well be displaced by the professional or bureaucratic norms that person adopts.
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Batas-batas administratif kebijaksanaanDua pertanyaan lain berhubungan erat untuk efisiensi responsif isu batas administratif kebijaksanaan dan jalan untuk partisipasi masyarakat dalam pengambilan keputusan administratif. Kami telah mencatat bahwa administrator mengambil isyarat utama mereka dari tindakan legislatif yang memulai program dan eksekutif yang dikenakan dengan melaksanakan program. Jika Anda yang direkrut untuk mengelola badan baru, salah satu prioritas pertama Anda akan untuk membiasakan diri dengan undang-undang yang dibuat badan dan perintah eksekutif atau Pedoman lain yang menguraikan tanggung-jawab lembaga. Tetapi jika situasi Anda khas, Anda akan menemukan bahwa undang-undang maupun petunjuk Anda menerima fom eksekutif yang cukup rinci untuk menjawab semua pertanyaan yang menimbulkan pekerjaan Anda. Akan ada kebutuhan untuk mengembangkan kebijakan mengenai isues ini; kebijakan yang, pada dasarnya, hanya lebih rinci potongan "undang-undang". Selain itu, Anda masuk ke pekerjaan, Anda mungkin merasa perlu meminta badan legislatif atau eksekutif pencuri untuk membuat perubahan tertentu dalam aturan dan peraturan di mana Anda beroperasi.Masalahnya, tentu saja, adalah untuk memastikan bahwa kebijakan atau rekomendasi untuk perubahan yang konsisten dengan keinginan warga. Di banyak wilayah, tentu saja, legislatif dan kepala eksekutif populer dipilih, dan terpilihnya kembali mereka tergantung pada tanggapan mereka terhadap dirasakan kebutuhan dan kepentingan publik. Bagi mereka, proses pemilihan menjamin responsif, setidaknya dalam teori. Asalkan Anda bertindak dengan cara yang jelas sesuai dengan maksud legislatif, Anda akan cenderung dianggap tepat responsif. Tapi karena situasi yang paling tidak yang jelas, pertanyaan menjadi, "bagaimana bisa kita meyakinkan bahwa administrator adalah berolahraga kebijaksanaan dalam cara yang konsisten dengan kehendak rakyat, Apakah dinyatakan dalam Konstitusi, hukum-hukum tanah, atau preferensi warga?Secara historis, dua jawaban telah mengajukan pertanyaan ini. Dalam perdebatan penting di halaman tinjauan administrasi dan jurnal-jurnal lainnya sekitar empat puluh tahun yang lalu. Herman halus berpendapat bahwa, untuk menjaga responsif kepada publik, manajer umum organisasi harus tunduk kepada kontrol yang ketat dan kaku oleh legislatif. Pertanyaan ini sederhana (meskipun mungkin overdrawn): "Adalah pelayan publik untuk memutuskan program mereka sendiri, atau apakah mereka tentu saja tindakan untuk memutuskan oleh sebuah badan di luar diri mereka sendiri?" (Finer,1972,p.328). Jawabannya adalah sama langsung: hanya melalui peraturan spesifik dan terperinci yang hati-hati membatasi karya Manajer Umum dapat dipertahankan responsif kepada badan legislatif. Ini interpretion tentang bagaimana untuk memastikan respon sering disebut tanggung-jawab objektif, tergantung memang objektif kontrol eksternal.Carl Friedrich, di sisi lain, berpendapat bahwa meningkatnya kompleksitas masyarakat modern dibuat, seperti rinci undang-undang sulit, jika tidak mustahil: Akibatnya, Friedrich merasa bahwa kekhawatiran administrator sendiri kepentingan umum sering hanya nyata kepastian bahwa tindakan Nya akan responsif terhadap pemilih. Untungnya, menulis Friedrich, meningkatnya jumlah profesional di pemerintah meningkatkan kemungkinan bahwa rasa tanggung jawab Demokrat akan menjadi bagian dari administrator make-up (Friedrich, 1972).Lainnya, memimpin Friedrich berikut, mencatat meningkatnya jumlah pejabat governemental menerima pelatihan di sekolah-sekolah urusan publik dan administrasi umum. Sekolah ini mengambil cukup serius kebutuhan untuk mengekspos siswa untuk isu-isu etis yang mereka mungkin bertemu di umum organisasi dan cara isu-isu ini mungkin dapat diselesaikan. Cara ini meyakinkan responsif sering disebut tanggung-jawab subyektif, tergantung memang sifat subyektif individu.Salah satu pendekatan untuk memastikan respon yang luka di seluruh perbedaan tujuan dan subjektif perwakilan birokrasi gagasan bahwa badan publik karyawan yang mencerminkan karakteristik tertentu demografis penduduk secara keseluruhan cenderung beroperasi lebih sesuai dengan preferensi kebijakan warga umum. Menurut pandangan ini, suatu badan dengan sejumlah besar perempuan dan minoritas karyawan lebih mungkin untuk memperhitungkan pandangan dari perempuan dan minoritas dalam populasi daripada badan laki-laki putih. Pengalaman dengan perwakilan birokrasi telah menghasilkan hasil yang beragam. Sedangkan kita memang mungkin mengharapkan lebih responsif terhadap ras dan jenis kelamin dalam contoh, tidak ada alasan untuk berpikir bahwa sebuah lembaga akan menjadi lebih atau kurang perwakilan jenis lain dari masalah. Selain itu, ada jaminan tidak nyata bahwa seseorang dari satu kelompok tertentu akan selalu atau selalu mencerminkan bahwa grup kebijakan preferensi. Preferensi mereka mungkin juga akan dipindahkan oleh norma-norma profesional atau birokrasi orang mengadopsi.
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Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 2:[Salinan]
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The Limits of Administrative Discretion
Two other questions are closely related to the efficiency responsiveness issues the limits of administrative discretion and avenues for public participation in administrative decision making. We have noted that administrators take their primary cues from the actions of legislatures that initiate programs and from executives who are charged with carrying out the programs. If you are hired to manage a new agency, one of your first priorities will be to familiarize yourself with the legislation that created the agency and with an executive orders or other directives outlining the agency’s responsibilities. But if your situation is typical, you will find that neither the legislation nor the directions you receive fom the executive are sufficiently detailed to answer all the questions your work raises. There will be a need to develop policies regarding these isues; policies that are, in effect, merely more detailed pieces of “legislation”. In addition, as you get into the work, you may find it necessary to ask the legislature or the thief executive to make certain changes in the rules and regulations under which you operate.
The problem, of course, is to make sure that your policies or recommendations for change are consistent with the wishes of the citizenry. In most jurisdictions, of course, the legislature and the chief executive are popularly elected, and their reelection depends on their response to the public’s perceived needs and interests. For them, the electoral process assures responsiveness, at least in theory. As long as you are acting in a way that is clearly consistent with legislative intent, you are likely to be considered appropriately responsive. But because most situation aren’t that clear, the question becomes, “How can we assure that the administrator is exercising discretion in a way consistent with the will of the people, whether expressed in the Constitution, the laws of the land, or the preferences of citizens?
Historically, two answers have been posed to this question. In an important debate in the pages of the public administration review and other journals some forty years ago. Herman Finer argued that, to maintain responsiveness to the public, managers in public organizations should be subjected to strict and rigid controls by the legislature. His question was straightforward ( though perhaps overdrawn) : “Are the servants of the public to decide their own course, or is their course of action to be decide by a body outside themselves?” ( Finer,1972,p.328). His answer was equally direct: only through specific and detailed legislation carefully limiting of the work of public managers could responsiveness to the legislature be maintained. This interpretion of how to assure responsiveness is often called objective responsibility, depending as it does on objective external controls.
Carl Friedrich, on the other hand, argued that the increasing complexity of modern society made, such detailed legislation difficult, if not impossible: consequently, Friedrich felt that the administrator’s own concern for the public interest was often the only real assurance that his or her actions would be responsive to the electorate. Fortunately, wrote Friedrich, the growing number of professionals in government increase the likelihood that a sense of democratic responsibility will be a part of the administrator’s make-up ( Friedrich, 1972 ).
Others, following Friedrich’s lead, noted the growing number of governemental officials receiving training in schools of public affairs and public administration. These schools take quite seriously the need to expose students to the ethical issues they may encounter in public organizations and to ways these issues might be resolved. This way of assuring responsiveness is often called subjective responsibility, depending as it does on the subjective nature of the individual.
One approach to assuring responsiveness that cuts across the objective/subjective distinction is representative bureaucracy the idea that public agencies whose employees reflect certain demographic characteristics of the population as a whole are likely to operate more in line with the policy preferences of the general citizenry. According to this view, an agency with a substantial number of women and minorities employees is more likely to take into account the views of women and minorities in the population than would an agency of white males. Experience with representative bureaucracy has produced mixed results. Whereas we might indeed expect greater responsiveness with respect to race and gender in the example, there is no reason to think that such an agency would be more or less representative on other types of issues. Moreover, there is no real assurance that a person from one particular group would necessarily or always reflect that group’s policy preferences. Those preferences might well be displaced by the professional or bureaucratic norms that person adopts.
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