a schedule of reinforcement is a pa

a schedule of reinforcement is a pattern of "rewarding" behavior based upon a fixed time interval and a fixed number of responses between "rewards." In a laboratory Skinner and Ferster have obtained performances appropriate to each of nine different ratio-interval schedules." Skinner thinks that this achievement makes more plausible the extension of laboratory results to daily human life. To him, learning, in the everyday life of people, is more complicated but nevertheless of the same basic nature as a lower animal learning through operant conditioning.
in operant conditioning experiments the species of organism studied has made surprisingly little difference." Comparable result have been obtained with pigeons, rats, dogs, monkeys, human children, and psychotic subjects. in spite of great phylogenetic differences, all these organisms show amazingly similar properties of the learning process."
What Psychological Theory Underlies Skinner's Teaching Procedures?
Throughout his study and writings, Professor Skinner had adhered rigorously to a basic conviction that psychologists should restrict their study to the correlations between stimuli and responses. He considers only past events to be relevant to prediction of behavior. Accordingly, he states, "Even if we could discover a spider's felt intention or sense of purpose, we could not offer it as a cause of the behavior." Thus, any mentalistic impedes its more effective analysis. Skinner, like both Thorndike and Watson before him, assumes that human beings are neutral and passive and that all behavior can be described in sequential mechanistic terms. In his study of human beings and lower animals, he is constantly mechanistic and elementistic; to him, psychology is the science of behavior.
What Is The Meaning of The "Science of Behavior"?
Skinner sees a great and crucial future for a science of behavior. In his view since s science of behavior is concerned with demonstrating the consequences of culture practices, the presence os such s science will be an essential mark of the culture or cultures that will survive in the future. The culture most likely to survive is the one in which the methods of science are most effectively applied to the problems of human behavior. Consequently, throughout his work he has striven constantly to be scientific to the nth degree. He sees science as "more than a set attitudes. It a search for order, for uniformities, for lawful relations among the events in nature. Its begins, as we all begin, by observing single episodes, but it quickly passes on to the general rule, to scientific law."
A scientific-Realistic Definition of Science. Skinner works on the basic assumption that there is order in nature, including human behavior and that it is the function of science to discover the order; this is the commitment of a scientific-realistic, as opposed to a positive-relativistic, scientist. Within Skinner’s scientific-realistic outlook, science is concerned with the discovery of preexistent laws, which govern the world about us. Knowledge of these laws enhances predictability, and the thereby control, of the variables that cause events to occur. This is as true in psychology as in physics or chemistry. Thus, human beings, through discovery of law and organization of them into systems, enable themselves to deal effectively with aspects reinforcing systems found in nature; it is concerned with facilitating the behavior which is reinforced by them.
Human behavior, a subject of science. According to skinner, it is a not to be assumed that human behavior has any peculiar properties that require a unique method or special kind of knowledge. “The experimental analysis of behavior is a regorous, extensive, and rapidly advancing branch of biology.” Thus, the variables of psychology, like the variables of any other science, must be described in physical terms. In Skinner’s psychology the dependent variable in a situation is the behavior of an individual organism. The independent variable consists of external conditions of which the behavior is a function. This means that behavior operates upon the environment to generate consequences. Notice that in this process neither the person nor the environment but it behavior behaves; behavior is a phenomenon of nature. Just as wind blows, behavior behaves.
The laws of the science of psychology are as definite as those of any other science. Skinner says, “It is decidedly not true that horse may be led to water but cannot be made to drink.” Through applying the laws of psychology and arranging a history of severe deprivation, it can be made absolutely sure that drinking will occur; likewise, a desired behavior can be caused in a human being.
Skinner’s goal in psychology is to achieve the degree of predictions and control in regard to human behavior that has been achieved by the physical sciences. The scientist of behavior evaluates probability of behavior and explores conditions that determine it. Through gathering data in regard to the frequencies of responses that have already occured, he (she) is able to make accurate statement about the likelihood of occurrence of a single future response of the same kind; frequency of response indicates probability of response. We are concerned, then, with the causes of human behavior. We want to know why men behave as they do. Any conditions or event which can be shown to have an effect upon behavior must be taken into account. By discovering and analyzing these causes, we can predict behavior; to the extent that we can manipulate them, we can control behavior.
In keeping with his physicalistic commitment ( a physicalist is one who holds human thoughts and actions to be determined by physical laws), Professor Skinner states, “I do not see any distinction between predicting what an individual is going to do and predicting what, let us say, a sailboat is going to do.” “Operant conditioning shapes behavior as the sculptor shapes a lump of clay.”
How Is The Science of Behavior Related to Determinism?
Skinner’s psychology implies a strictly naturalistic determinism. He notes that a scientific conception of human behavior dictates one practices and a philosophy of person freedom another and that a scientific conception of human behavior entails the acceptance of an assumption of determinism. Determinism means that behavior is caused and that the behavior that appears is the only kind that could have appeared. Skinner emphasizes that the same type of determinism that is commonly accepted as applying to machines applies equally to human beings. Accordingly, he states, “Man is a machine, but he is a very complex one. At present he is far beyond the powers of men to construct except, of course, in the usual biological way.
As machines have become more lifelike, living organisms have been found to be more like machine. Today, many machines are deliberately designed to operate in ways that resemble “human behavior.” “Man has, in short, created the machine in his own image.” Since mechanical calculators now solve equations either too difficult or too time consuming even for mathematicians to conquer, human beings have lost much of their uniqueness.
Determinism carries with it the implication that environment determines an individual even when he (she) alters his own environment.
It does not matter that the individual may take it upon himself to control the variables of which his own behavior is a function or, in a broad sense, to engage in the design of his own culture. He does this only because because he is the product of a culture which generates self control or cultural design as a mode of behavior.
All human behavior, including the behavior of machines which man builds to behave in his place, is ultimately to be accounted for in terms of the phylogenic contingencies of survival which have produced man as a species and the ontogenic contingencies of reinforcement which have produced him as an individual.

Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 1:

a schedule of reinforcement is a pattern of "rewarding" behavior based upon a fixed time interval and a fixed number of responses between "rewards." In a laboratory Skinner and Ferster have obtained performances appropriate to each of nine different ratio-interval schedules." Skinner thinks that this achievement makes more plausible the extension of laboratory results to daily human life. To him, learning, in the everyday life of people, is more complicated but nevertheless of the same basic nature as a lower animal learning through operant conditioning.in operant conditioning experiments the species of organism studied has made surprisingly little difference." Comparable result have been obtained with pigeons, rats, dogs, monkeys, human children, and psychotic subjects. in spite of great phylogenetic differences, all these organisms show amazingly similar properties of the learning process."What Psychological Theory Underlies Skinner's Teaching Procedures?Sepanjang studi dan tulisan-tulisan, Profesor Skinner telah ditaati ketat keyakinan dasar bahwa psikolog harus membatasi studi mereka ke korelasi antara rangsangan dan tanggapan. Dia menganggap hanya peristiwa masa lalu untuk menjadi relevan dengan prediksi perilaku. Dengan demikian, ia menyatakan, "bahkan jika kita bisa menemukan seekor laba-laba merasa niat atau rasa tujuan, kita bisa tidak menawarkan itu sebagai penyebab perilaku." Dengan demikian, setiap mentalistic menghambat analisis yang lebih efektif. Skinner, seperti Thorndike dan Watson sebelum dia, menganggap bahwa manusia netral dan pasif dan bahwa semua perilaku dapat digambarkan dalam istilah mekanistik berurutan. Dalam studi manusia dan binatang yang lebih rendah, ia terus-menerus mekanistik dan elementistic; kepadanya: Psikologi adalah ilmu perilaku.Apakah arti dari "Ilmu perilaku"?Skinner sees a great and crucial future for a science of behavior. In his view since s science of behavior is concerned with demonstrating the consequences of culture practices, the presence os such s science will be an essential mark of the culture or cultures that will survive in the future. The culture most likely to survive is the one in which the methods of science are most effectively applied to the problems of human behavior. Consequently, throughout his work he has striven constantly to be scientific to the nth degree. He sees science as "more than a set attitudes. It a search for order, for uniformities, for lawful relations among the events in nature. Its begins, as we all begin, by observing single episodes, but it quickly passes on to the general rule, to scientific law."Definisi ilmu pengetahuan ilmiah-realistis. Skinner bekerja pada asumsi bahwa ada Orde di alam, termasuk perilaku manusia dan bahwa itu adalah fungsi sains untuk mengetahui pesanan; ini adalah komitmen ilmiah-realistis, sebagai lawan dari positif-relativistik, ilmuwan. Dalam outlook ilmiah-realistis Skinner's, ilmu berkaitan dengan penemuan hukum dari aslinya, yang memerintah dunia tentang kami. Pengetahuan tentang undang-undang ini meningkatkan prediktabilitas, dan dengan demikian kontrol, Variabel yang menyebabkan peristiwa-peristiwa terjadi. Hal ini berlaku dalam psikologi seperti dalam fisika atau kimia. Dengan demikian, manusia, melalui penemuan hukum dan organisasi mereka ke dalam sistem, mengaktifkan diri untuk secara efektif menangani aspek memperkuat sistem yang ditemukan di alam; Hal ini berkenaan dengan memfasilitasi perilaku yang diperkuat oleh mereka.Human behavior, a subject of science. According to skinner, it is a not to be assumed that human behavior has any peculiar properties that require a unique method or special kind of knowledge. “The experimental analysis of behavior is a regorous, extensive, and rapidly advancing branch of biology.” Thus, the variables of psychology, like the variables of any other science, must be described in physical terms. In Skinner’s psychology the dependent variable in a situation is the behavior of an individual organism. The independent variable consists of external conditions of which the behavior is a function. This means that behavior operates upon the environment to generate consequences. Notice that in this process neither the person nor the environment but it behavior behaves; behavior is a phenomenon of nature. Just as wind blows, behavior behaves.The laws of the science of psychology are as definite as those of any other science. Skinner says, “It is decidedly not true that horse may be led to water but cannot be made to drink.” Through applying the laws of psychology and arranging a history of severe deprivation, it can be made absolutely sure that drinking will occur; likewise, a desired behavior can be caused in a human being.Skinner’s goal in psychology is to achieve the degree of predictions and control in regard to human behavior that has been achieved by the physical sciences. The scientist of behavior evaluates probability of behavior and explores conditions that determine it. Through gathering data in regard to the frequencies of responses that have already occured, he (she) is able to make accurate statement about the likelihood of occurrence of a single future response of the same kind; frequency of response indicates probability of response. We are concerned, then, with the causes of human behavior. We want to know why men behave as they do. Any conditions or event which can be shown to have an effect upon behavior must be taken into account. By discovering and analyzing these causes, we can predict behavior; to the extent that we can manipulate them, we can control behavior.In keeping with his physicalistic commitment ( a physicalist is one who holds human thoughts and actions to be determined by physical laws), Professor Skinner states, “I do not see any distinction between predicting what an individual is going to do and predicting what, let us say, a sailboat is going to do.” “Operant conditioning shapes behavior as the sculptor shapes a lump of clay.”How Is The Science of Behavior Related to Determinism?Skinner’s psychology implies a strictly naturalistic determinism. He notes that a scientific conception of human behavior dictates one practices and a philosophy of person freedom another and that a scientific conception of human behavior entails the acceptance of an assumption of determinism. Determinism means that behavior is caused and that the behavior that appears is the only kind that could have appeared. Skinner emphasizes that the same type of determinism that is commonly accepted as applying to machines applies equally to human beings. Accordingly, he states, “Man is a machine, but he is a very complex one. At present he is far beyond the powers of men to construct except, of course, in the usual biological way.As machines have become more lifelike, living organisms have been found to be more like machine. Today, many machines are deliberately designed to operate in ways that resemble “human behavior.” “Man has, in short, created the machine in his own image.” Since mechanical calculators now solve equations either too difficult or too time consuming even for mathematicians to conquer, human beings have lost much of their uniqueness.Determinism carries with it the implication that environment determines an individual even when he (she) alters his own environment.It does not matter that the individual may take it upon himself to control the variables of which his own behavior is a function or, in a broad sense, to engage in the design of his own culture. He does this only because because he is the product of a culture which generates self control or cultural design as a mode of behavior.All human behavior, including the behavior of machines which man builds to behave in his place, is ultimately to be accounted for in terms of the phylogenic contingencies of survival which have produced man as a species and the ontogenic contingencies of reinforcement which have produced him as an individual.