Determine ObjectivesWe now come to the event (see Figure 6-1) that has terjemahan - Determine ObjectivesWe now come to the event (see Figure 6-1) that has Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

Determine ObjectivesWe now come to

Determine Objectives
We now come to the event (see Figure 6-1) that has caused more controversy and conflict than any other aspect of designing training programs. Before 1960, learning programs used objectives but with a wide range of flexibility. There was the work of Bloom et al. [1] which constituted a significant attempt to clarify the area of leaming objectives. Then, in the early 19605, we felt the impact of Skinner and those who followed his approach to objectives [2]. Their insistence was on "specific behavioral objectives," and no deviation was allowed.
Over the years, the inevitable mellowing and cross-fertilization has taken place. There is no question about the need for objectives, but there is also no one form or method that satisfies the requirements of all people and all programs.
By the end of this event, the Designer will be able:
To identify the elements that must be considered in determining objectives for the program and for the individual learning experiences.
To list the specific program obiectives and learning objectives related to the design under consideration.
Before proceeding further we need a brief discussion of tenns. Some have endeavored to distinguish between terms such as program and course. In the past, I have been among them. I must concede that there is so little agreement that it would be counterproductive to attempt it in this book. Generally a course is con - sidered a single learning experience which stands by itself, with a determined beginning and end. A program is usually a series of courses.
This definition may suffice for colleges and universities, but it cannot be directly applied to the HRD field. Indeed, it is questionable if that distinction would be helpful. Therefore, as we proceed with the CEM, the term program will be used to identify the leaming experience being designed. Whether it will consist of more than one leaming experience cannot be determined until a later event of the CEM.
For this event, two areas must be explored and decisions must be made. The first regards the overall program and how it relates to solving the previously identified problem. lt can be said that the general objective is to have a program that will solve the problem. More specifically, the second area and decision relates to the specific learning experiences. That is the point at which the objectives will move to the more specific.
WHAT ARE OBJECTIVES?
An objective is the statement of what is to be accomplished by an activity. We could engage in lengthy polemics conceming objectives, goals, and purposes and some have done this. Perhaps, at times, it is important to make the distinction. Of more value to the Designer isthe understanding of what an objective is, how it is developed, and how it can be used.
A training program does not start with objectives. Before we can explore objectives, it is necessary to have successfully completed the previous events of the CEM. At the end of the previous event, we were able to develop a list of needs. These were not objectives, but our objectives arise from the needs identified during the previous event.
Objectives are only words put together by people. As such, they are subject to the usual misinterpretations that arise in any human communication. it has been said that meaning is in people, not in words. We'try to get agreement on what we mean by reducing our thoughts to words (as I am doing in this book). If you and I could dialogue together on each phase of these events, I am sure we would have less trouble in communicating. We have not yet reached that stage of technology for general use, therefore we still rely on books like this one. As our technology increases, it is not unlikely that "readers" will be able to interact directly with "authors." Meanwhile let us deal within the present limitations.
Some contend that the process of developing objectives can be more significant than the end result the written objectives. To "Determine Objectives" we go through a proceses involving people and data. l_t is not a straight line process but an evolving one, with many twists and turns. The Designer should not be put in the position of having to write the objectives, and then have to try to defend them. "Determine Objectives" should not be viewed as an adversary proceeding.
it is deceptively easy for the Designer to take the needs identified in the previous event and then write objectives. These become the Designer's objectives and not necessarily those of the organization or the leamer. At some point, the Designer must take the available data and actually write some objectives to test out understanding and seek agreement. This should not be done too early in this event, for pushing to premature closure can produce hostility which may block effective agreement on objectives.
When considering objectives, the Designer looks ahead in the CEM and recognizes that theform and content of the written objectives will dramatically influence whatever follows. Specific behavioral objectives are helpful in evaluation, but can wreak havoc with curriculum or instructional strategies. Objectives written in specific behavioral terms do not generally allow for the serendipity and spontaneity that some people require in a learning situation.
Decisions about the form of the written objectives must reflect a variety of factors, including theleamer, the organization, the material to be teamed. and the extent of the perfonnance change being sought. Underlying all of these is the value system and concepts of the Designer, as influenced by all those factors. There are many teaming theories, and we will be looking at some of them in the next event. Even here, however, the Designer must have some idea of the learning theory that might be most appropriate.
A major use of objectives is in evaluation. indeed. the more specific the objectives, the easier to evaluate the learning and performance. The objectives should be written with evaluation in mind. The Designer must conjecture, “How will we be able to determine if that objective has been reached?” We will not have to actually face this decision until the “Conduct Training" element of the CEM, but it must be considered at this point.
DEVELOP PROGRAM OBJECTIVES
To develop program objectives, the Designer starts with the needs identified in the previous event. The first step is to organize these needs into a priority listing.
Priorities
The development a listing of the needs, according to priorities, starts with agreement on what is a priority. There are many ways to look upon such a categorization, and the Designer must know the neeck of the individual and the organization in order to establish categories of priorities.
lt is unlikely that all the needs that have been previously identified can be satisfied in any one program. This does not mean that the needs are not valid, but that there are constraints that limit the possibility of meeting all the needs. However, all the previously identified needs are valid if the prior event was successfully completed, but since not all the needs can be satisfied, priorities become essential.
One way of listing priorities is by time The whole design process started with an organizational problem for which HRD could be a response. How soon must that problem be solved? lf it is in manufacturing and the process is producing detective output, time is of the essence. Unless the production line can be closed down, every item produced could be defective. it is important to provide then , ecessary training as soon as possible so as to decrease or eliminate rejects.
Another priority listing might consider the use of resources. What would it take, in the way of company resources, to provide the training program? We have already discussed the cost-benefit aspect. Here we are concerned with when the resources can be made available? Each organization has its own cycle of cash flow, for example, and the need for cash for training could determine the priority classification.
Availability of personnel could influence the priority classification. if the proposed program is for salespeople, and they are out in the field, certain of the needs might have to be delayed until those people are available.
Within any given organization, other items determine priorities. The Designer must determine these before devoting too much time to needs that could have a low priority. Rather than attempt to present specific classifications, let us generally explore other factors that could influence or detennine priorities.
The question might arise as to how often a specific performance, related to a need, is required. It could be a need, but one where the performance is demonstrated only rarely, or will not be required at all until some future time.
The possible learners could also become a priority consideration. We have pointed out the problem of availability. There is also a factor of sensitivity. if there is a vote for a union on the horizon, this could be the wrong time to provide some kinds of training or education. lf the company is issuing statements to the public and the press about its deteriorating market position, that could influence which needs are best met at this time.
Factors outside the organization also influence priorities. if the organization is under attack from consumer groups, government agencies, or competitors, the range of needs that can be satisfied would be different from a situation where there is no such attack. Previously l have emphasized that the Designer must know the direction of movement of the organization to keep the training and education relevant. The Designer must also be aware of those external forces that could cause a shift in priorities of needs.
Training, generally. means that the individual must be away from the job. Although we could consider some individualized leaming on the job site, this is not yet common enough to be given great consideration, but it is a factor t
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Menentukan tujuanKita sekarang datang ke acara (Lihat gambar 6 - 1) yang telah menyebabkan lebih banyak kontroversi dan conflict daripada aspek lain dari merancang program pelatihan. Sebelum tahun 1960, program-program yang digunakan tujuan belajar, tetapi dengan berbagai macam flexibility. Ada pekerjaan dari mekar et al. [1] yang merupakan usaha yang signifikan untuk memperjelas daerah tujuan leaming. Kemudian, dalam 19605 awal, kami merasa dampak Skinner dan mereka yang mengikuti pendekatan untuk tujuan [2]. Desakan mereka pada "tujuan perilaku tertentu", dan penyimpangan tidak diizinkan.Selama bertahun-tahun, yang tak terelakkan mellowing dan cross-fertilization telah mengambil tempat. Ada pertanyaan tentang perlunya untuk tujuan, tetapi ada juga satu bentuk atau metode yang memenuhi persyaratan dari semua orang dan semua program.Pada akhir acara ini, perancang akan dapat:Untuk mengidentifikasi elemen-elemen yang harus dipertimbangkan dalam menentukan tujuan untuk program dan untuk pengalaman pembelajaran individual.Daftar program khusus obiectives dan tujuan pembelajaran terkait dengan desain sedang dipertimbangkan.Sebelum melanjutkan lebih jauh, kita perlu diskusi singkat dari tenns. Beberapa telah berusaha keras untuk membedakan antara istilah-istilah seperti program dan kursus. Di masa lalu, saya telah di antara mereka. Saya harus mengakui bahwa ada begitu sedikit kesepakatan bahwa akan menjadi kontraproduktif untuk mencoba itu dalam buku ini. Umumnya kursus adalah con - sidered pengalaman belajar tunggal yang berdiri sendiri, dengan ditentukan awal dan akhir. Program ini biasanya serangkaian kursus.Definisi ini mungkin cukup untuk perguruan tinggi dan Universitas, tetapi tidak dapat langsung diterapkan ke bidang HRD. Memang, hal ini dipertanyakan jika perbedaan itu akan sangat membantu. Oleh karena itu, seperti kita lanjutkan dengan CEM, program jangka akan digunakan untuk mengidentifikasi pengalaman leaming yang dirancang. Apakah ini akan terdiri dari lebih dari satu leaming pengalaman tidak dapat ditentukan sampai acara kemudian CEM. Untuk acara ini, dua daerah harus dieksplorasi dan keputusan harus dilakukan. Pertama menganggap program secara keseluruhan dan bagaimana kaitannya dengan pemecahan masalah sebelumnya diidentifikasi. lt dapat dikatakan bahwa tujuan umum akan memiliki program yang akan memecahkan masalah. Lebih specifically, kedua daerah dan keputusan berkaitan dengan pengalaman belajar spesifik. Itu adalah titik di mana tujuan akan pindah ke yang lebih spesifik.APAKAH TUJUAN?Tujuan adalah pernyataan dari apa yang akan dilaksanakan oleh suatu kegiatan. Kita bisa terlibat dalam panjang polemik conceming tujuan, tujuan, dan tujuan dan beberapa telah melakukan ini. Mungkin, di kali, sangat penting untuk membuat perbedaan. Nilai lebih untuk desainer adalah pemahaman apa tujuan adalah, bagaimana ia dikembangkan dan bagaimana hal itu dapat digunakan.Program pelatihan tidak dimulai dengan tujuan. Sebelum kita dapat menjelajahi tujuan, diperlukan untuk berhasil menyelesaikan peristiwa sebelumnya CEM. Pada akhir acara sebelumnya, kami mampu mengembangkan daftar kebutuhan. Ini bukanlah tujuan, tetapi tujuan kami muncul dari kebutuhan yang diidentifikasi selama peristiwa sebelumnya.Tujuan adalah hanya kata-kata yang disatukan oleh orang-orang. Dengan demikian, mereka dikenakan salah pengertian biasa yang timbul dalam komunikasi manusia. telah dikatakan bahwa makna adalah orang-orang, tidak dalam kata-kata. We'try untuk mendapatkan kesepakatan pada apa yang kita maksud dengan mengurangi pikiran kita kata-kata (seperti yang saya lakukan dalam buku ini). Jika Anda dan saya bisa dialog bersama-sama pada setiap tahap dari peristiwa ini, saya yakin kita akan memiliki lebih sedikit kesulitan dalam berkomunikasi. Kami belum belum mencapai tahap itu teknologi untuk penggunaan umum, oleh karena itu kami masih mengandalkan buku seperti ini. Sebagai teknologi kami meningkat, bukan tidak mungkin bahwa "pembaca" akan dapat berinteraksi langsung dengan "penulis." Sementara itu mari kita berurusan dalam lingkungan batasan yang hadir.Beberapa berpendapat bahwa proses pengembangan tujuan dapat lebih penting daripada akhir hasil tujuan tertulis. Untuk "Menentukan tujuan" kami pergi melalui proceses yang melibatkan orang-orang dan data. l_t bukanlah suatu proses garis lurus tetapi satu berkembang, dengan banyak tikungan dan berubah. Desainer tidak akan dimasukkan dalam posisi harus menulis tujuan, dan kemudian harus mencoba untuk membela mereka. "Menentukan tujuan" harus tidak dipandang sebagai musuh melanjutkan.Hal ini menipu mudah bagi desainer untuk mengambil kebutuhan diidentifikasi dalam peristiwa sebelumnya dan kemudian menulis tujuan. Ini menjadi perancang tujuan dan tidak selalu orang-orang dari organisasi atau Check-Out. Di beberapa titik, perancang harus mengambil data yang tersedia dan benar-benar menulis beberapa tujuan untuk menguji pemahaman dan mencari kesepakatan. Ini tidak boleh dilakukan terlalu dini dalam acara ini, untuk mendorong penutupan dini dapat menghasilkan permusuhan yang dapat menghalangi efektif perjanjian pada tujuan.Ketika mempertimbangkan tujuan, perancang tampak depan di CEM dan mengakui bahwa theform dan konten tertulis tujuan akan secara dramatis influence apa pun mengikuti. Tujuan perilaku tertentu membantu dalam evaluasi, tetapi dapat mendatangkan malapetaka dengan kurikulum atau strategi pengajaran. Tujuan yang ditulis dalam istilah spesifik perilaku tidak umumnya mengizinkan untuk serendipity dan spontanitas yang memerlukan beberapa orang dalam situasi belajar.Keputusan tentang bentuk tertulis tujuan harus mencerminkan berbagai faktor, termasuk theleamer, organisasi, material yang akan bekerja. dan tingkat perubahan perfonnance sedang dicari. Mendasari semua ini adalah sistem nilai dan konsep-konsep desain, sebagai influenced oleh faktor-faktor tersebut. Ada banyak teori tim, dan kita akan melihat beberapa dari mereka di acara berikutnya. Bahkan di sini, namun, perancang harus memiliki beberapa gagasan tentang teori belajar yang mungkin paling tepat.Penggunaan utama dari tujuan adalah dalam evaluasi. memang. semakin spesifik tujuan, lebih mudah untuk menilai belajar dan kinerja. Tujuan harus ditulis dengan evaluasi dalam pikiran. Perancang harus menduga, "Bagaimana kita akan dapat menentukan jika tujuan yang telah mencapai?" Kita tidak harus benar-benar menghadapi keputusan ini sampai unsur CEM "Melakukan pelatihan", tapi itu harus dipertimbangkan saat ini.MENGEMBANGKAN SASARAN PROGRAMUntuk mengembangkan tujuan program, desainer dimulai dengan kebutuhan yang diidentifikasi dalam peristiwa sebelumnya. Langkah pertama adalah untuk mengatur kebutuhan ini ke dalam daftar prioritas.PrioritasPengembangan daftar kebutuhan, sesuai dengan prioritas, dimulai dengan perjanjian pada apa yang prioritas. Ada banyak cara untuk memandang kategorisasi semacam itu, dan perancang harus tahu neeck individu dan organisasi untuk menetapkan kategori prioritas.lt tidak mungkin bahwa semua kebutuhan yang telah sebelumnya diidentifikasi bisa puas dalam salah satu program. Ini tidak berarti bahwa kebutuhan tidak sah, tetapi bahwa ada kendala yang membatasi kemungkinan yang sesuai dengan kebutuhan. Namun, semua kebutuhan sebelumnya diidentifikasi berlaku jika peristiwa yang sebelumnya berhasil menyelesaikan, tetapi karena tidak semua kebutuhan dapat dipenuhi, prioritas menjadi penting.Salah satu cara daftar prioritas adalah saat seluruh proses desain dimulai dengan masalah organisasi yang HRD bisa menjadi respon. Seberapa cepat harus masalah itu diselesaikan? LF dalam pembuatan dan proses menghasilkan output detektif, waktu adalah esensi. Kecuali jalur produksi dapat ditutup, setiap item diproduksi bisa jadi Cacat. sangat penting untuk memberikan kemudian, ecessary pelatihan sesegera mungkin untuk mengurangi atau menghilangkan menolak.Daftar prioritas lain mungkin mempertimbangkan penggunaan sumber daya. Apa yang akan diperlukan, dalam cara perusahaan sumber daya, untuk menyediakan program pelatihan? Kami sudah dibahas aspek biaya-manfaat. Di sini kita prihatin dengan Kapan sumber daya dapat dibuat tersedia? Setiap organisasi memiliki siklus tersendiri dari arus kas, misalnya, dan dana untuk pelatihan bisa menentukan klasifikasi prioritas.Ketersediaan personil dapat mempengaruhi klasifikasi prioritas. Jika program yang diusulkan adalah untuk Penjual, dan mereka berada di luar di lapangan, pasti kebutuhan mungkin akan tertunda sampai orang-orang tersedia.Dalam organisasi tertentu apapun, item lainnya menentukan prioritas. Perancang harus menentukan ini sebelum mencurahkan waktu terlalu banyak untuk kebutuhan yang bisa memiliki prioritas rendah. Daripada mencoba untuk menyajikan klasifikasi spesifik, mari kita umumnya Jelajahi faktor-faktor lain yang dapat mempengaruhi atau prioritas detennine.Persoalan mungkin timbul mengenai seberapa sering kinerja spesifik, berkaitan dengan kebutuhan, diperlukan. Itu bisa menjadi kebutuhan, tapi satu mana kinerja ditunjukkan jarang, atau tidak akan diperlukan sama sekali sampai dikemudian hari.Peserta juga bisa menjadi pertimbangan prioritas. Kami telah menunjukkan masalah ketersediaan. Ada juga faktor sensitivitas. Jika ada sebuah vote for persatuan di cakrawala, ini bisa menjadi waktu yang salah untuk menyediakan beberapa macam pelatihan atau pendidikan. LF perusahaan adalah mengeluarkan pernyataan ke publik dan bertemu pers tentang memburuk posisi pasar, yang dapat mempengaruhi kebutuhan yang terbaik saat ini.Faktor-faktor di luar organisasi juga mempengaruhi prioritas. Jika organisasi berada di bawah serangan dari kelompok-kelompok konsumen, instansi pemerintah atau pesaing, macam kebutuhan yang dapat dipenuhi akan berbeda dari situasi dimana tidak ada serangan tersebut. Sebelumnya l telah menekankan bahwa perancang harus tahu arah pergerakan organisasi untuk menjaga pendidikan dan pelatihan yang relevan. Perancang juga harus sadar mereka kekuatan-kekuatan eksternal yang dapat menyebabkan pergeseran dalam prioritas kebutuhan.Pelatihan, umumnya. berarti bahwa individu harus dari pekerjaan. Meskipun kita bisa mempertimbangkan beberapa leaming individual di tempat kerja, hal ini tidak lagi cukup umum diberikan pertimbangan, tetapi ini adalah t faktor
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Determine Objectives
We now come to the event (see Figure 6-1) that has caused more controversy and conflict than any other aspect of designing training programs. Before 1960, learning programs used objectives but with a wide range of flexibility. There was the work of Bloom et al. [1] which constituted a significant attempt to clarify the area of leaming objectives. Then, in the early 19605, we felt the impact of Skinner and those who followed his approach to objectives [2]. Their insistence was on "specific behavioral objectives," and no deviation was allowed.
Over the years, the inevitable mellowing and cross-fertilization has taken place. There is no question about the need for objectives, but there is also no one form or method that satisfies the requirements of all people and all programs.
By the end of this event, the Designer will be able:
To identify the elements that must be considered in determining objectives for the program and for the individual learning experiences.
To list the specific program obiectives and learning objectives related to the design under consideration.
Before proceeding further we need a brief discussion of tenns. Some have endeavored to distinguish between terms such as program and course. In the past, I have been among them. I must concede that there is so little agreement that it would be counterproductive to attempt it in this book. Generally a course is con - sidered a single learning experience which stands by itself, with a determined beginning and end. A program is usually a series of courses.
This definition may suffice for colleges and universities, but it cannot be directly applied to the HRD field. Indeed, it is questionable if that distinction would be helpful. Therefore, as we proceed with the CEM, the term program will be used to identify the leaming experience being designed. Whether it will consist of more than one leaming experience cannot be determined until a later event of the CEM.
For this event, two areas must be explored and decisions must be made. The first regards the overall program and how it relates to solving the previously identified problem. lt can be said that the general objective is to have a program that will solve the problem. More specifically, the second area and decision relates to the specific learning experiences. That is the point at which the objectives will move to the more specific.
WHAT ARE OBJECTIVES?
An objective is the statement of what is to be accomplished by an activity. We could engage in lengthy polemics conceming objectives, goals, and purposes and some have done this. Perhaps, at times, it is important to make the distinction. Of more value to the Designer isthe understanding of what an objective is, how it is developed, and how it can be used.
A training program does not start with objectives. Before we can explore objectives, it is necessary to have successfully completed the previous events of the CEM. At the end of the previous event, we were able to develop a list of needs. These were not objectives, but our objectives arise from the needs identified during the previous event.
Objectives are only words put together by people. As such, they are subject to the usual misinterpretations that arise in any human communication. it has been said that meaning is in people, not in words. We'try to get agreement on what we mean by reducing our thoughts to words (as I am doing in this book). If you and I could dialogue together on each phase of these events, I am sure we would have less trouble in communicating. We have not yet reached that stage of technology for general use, therefore we still rely on books like this one. As our technology increases, it is not unlikely that "readers" will be able to interact directly with "authors." Meanwhile let us deal within the present limitations.
Some contend that the process of developing objectives can be more significant than the end result the written objectives. To "Determine Objectives" we go through a proceses involving people and data. l_t is not a straight line process but an evolving one, with many twists and turns. The Designer should not be put in the position of having to write the objectives, and then have to try to defend them. "Determine Objectives" should not be viewed as an adversary proceeding.
it is deceptively easy for the Designer to take the needs identified in the previous event and then write objectives. These become the Designer's objectives and not necessarily those of the organization or the leamer. At some point, the Designer must take the available data and actually write some objectives to test out understanding and seek agreement. This should not be done too early in this event, for pushing to premature closure can produce hostility which may block effective agreement on objectives.
When considering objectives, the Designer looks ahead in the CEM and recognizes that theform and content of the written objectives will dramatically influence whatever follows. Specific behavioral objectives are helpful in evaluation, but can wreak havoc with curriculum or instructional strategies. Objectives written in specific behavioral terms do not generally allow for the serendipity and spontaneity that some people require in a learning situation.
Decisions about the form of the written objectives must reflect a variety of factors, including theleamer, the organization, the material to be teamed. and the extent of the perfonnance change being sought. Underlying all of these is the value system and concepts of the Designer, as influenced by all those factors. There are many teaming theories, and we will be looking at some of them in the next event. Even here, however, the Designer must have some idea of the learning theory that might be most appropriate.
A major use of objectives is in evaluation. indeed. the more specific the objectives, the easier to evaluate the learning and performance. The objectives should be written with evaluation in mind. The Designer must conjecture, “How will we be able to determine if that objective has been reached?” We will not have to actually face this decision until the “Conduct Training" element of the CEM, but it must be considered at this point.
DEVELOP PROGRAM OBJECTIVES
To develop program objectives, the Designer starts with the needs identified in the previous event. The first step is to organize these needs into a priority listing.
Priorities
The development a listing of the needs, according to priorities, starts with agreement on what is a priority. There are many ways to look upon such a categorization, and the Designer must know the neeck of the individual and the organization in order to establish categories of priorities.
lt is unlikely that all the needs that have been previously identified can be satisfied in any one program. This does not mean that the needs are not valid, but that there are constraints that limit the possibility of meeting all the needs. However, all the previously identified needs are valid if the prior event was successfully completed, but since not all the needs can be satisfied, priorities become essential.
One way of listing priorities is by time The whole design process started with an organizational problem for which HRD could be a response. How soon must that problem be solved? lf it is in manufacturing and the process is producing detective output, time is of the essence. Unless the production line can be closed down, every item produced could be defective. it is important to provide then , ecessary training as soon as possible so as to decrease or eliminate rejects.
Another priority listing might consider the use of resources. What would it take, in the way of company resources, to provide the training program? We have already discussed the cost-benefit aspect. Here we are concerned with when the resources can be made available? Each organization has its own cycle of cash flow, for example, and the need for cash for training could determine the priority classification.
Availability of personnel could influence the priority classification. if the proposed program is for salespeople, and they are out in the field, certain of the needs might have to be delayed until those people are available.
Within any given organization, other items determine priorities. The Designer must determine these before devoting too much time to needs that could have a low priority. Rather than attempt to present specific classifications, let us generally explore other factors that could influence or detennine priorities.
The question might arise as to how often a specific performance, related to a need, is required. It could be a need, but one where the performance is demonstrated only rarely, or will not be required at all until some future time.
The possible learners could also become a priority consideration. We have pointed out the problem of availability. There is also a factor of sensitivity. if there is a vote for a union on the horizon, this could be the wrong time to provide some kinds of training or education. lf the company is issuing statements to the public and the press about its deteriorating market position, that could influence which needs are best met at this time.
Factors outside the organization also influence priorities. if the organization is under attack from consumer groups, government agencies, or competitors, the range of needs that can be satisfied would be different from a situation where there is no such attack. Previously l have emphasized that the Designer must know the direction of movement of the organization to keep the training and education relevant. The Designer must also be aware of those external forces that could cause a shift in priorities of needs.
Training, generally. means that the individual must be away from the job. Although we could consider some individualized leaming on the job site, this is not yet common enough to be given great consideration, but it is a factor t
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