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Northern Rock Case Study1THE NORTHERN ROCK CRISIS: A MULTI-DIMENSIONAL PROBLEM WAITING TOHAPPENDavid T Llewellyn1BACKGROUNDFor three days in August 2007, the UK experienced its first run on a bank since Overendand Gurney, the London wholesale discount bank in 1866. Around £3 billion of depositswere withdrawn (around 11 percent of the bank’s total retail deposits) from a mediumsized bank – Northern Rock (NR). The unedifying spectacle of widely-publicised longqueues outside the bank’s branches testified to the bank’s serious problems. The NRcrisis was the first time the Bank of England (BOE), the UK’s central bank, had operatedits new money market regime in conditions of acute stress in financial markets, and itwas the first time it had acted as a lender-of-last-resort for many years.Northern Rock (previously a UK mutual building society) converted to bank status in1997. Without the previous constraints on its operating permissions, it acquired legalpowers to conduct the full range of banking business. However, it remained focussedpredominantly on the residential mortgage market. From the outset, it adopted asecuritisation and funding strategy which was increasingly based on secured wholesalemoney (by issuing mortgage-backed securities) and other capital market funding.Before considering the nature of the NR crisis, several points of perspective are noted atthe outset: the bank remained legally solvent (the nominal value of assets exceedingliabilities), only months earlier the bank had reported record profits, the quality of itsassets was never in question, its loan-loss record was good by industry standards, andfor many years the bank was regarded as a star-performer in the financial markets.Two problems emerged during the summer months of 2007: there was a generalisedlack of confidence in a particular asset class (mortgage bank securities) associated inlarge part with developments in the sub-prime mortgage market in the United States;and doubts emerged about the viability of the NR business model in particular.In September 2007, NR was forced to seek substantial assistance from the BOE evenafter the regulatory authorities, the UK’s Financial Services Authority (FSA) and theTreasury (the UK government’s finance office), had given assurances that the bank wassolvent, and all deposits at the bank would be guaranteed.THE CONTEXT OF FINANCIAL MARKET TURMOILThe NR episode needs to be set in the context of the global financial market turbulenceexperienced during the summer of 2007. Recent years have experienced anunprecedented wave of complex financial innovation with the creation of new financialinstruments and vehicles. In the words of the BOE, this financial innovation had theeffect of “creating often opaque and complex financial instruments with high embeddedleverage” (BOE, 2007a). Two major instruments at the centre of the financial marketturmoil were Securitisation and Collateralised Debt Obligations (CDOs – instruments
created from a portfolio of asset-backed securities and then broken into tranches of
varying default risk with resulting varied prices): in both cases issue volumes rose
sharply in the years prior to the crisis. Figure 1 shows the sharp rise in European
securitisations, and figure 2 indicates the volume of global CDO issues and particularly
the sharp increase in 2006 and the first half of 2007, followed by an almost total collapse
in the summer months of that year.
Securitisation involves a bank bringing together a large number of its loans (e.g.
mortgages) into a single package and selling the portfolio into the capital market. The
portfolio might be bought by other financial institutions or by specially created Special
Purpose Vehicles, Structured Investment Vehicles (SIVs), or Conduits established by the
securitising bank itself. The buyer issues securities (e.g. FRNs, asset-backed commercial
1 Copyright David T Llewellwn
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paper, longer-term paper) which are rated by a rating agency according to the quality of
the underlying assets in the portfolio. In effect, the bank passes the loans to others, and
the strategy is often referred to as originate-and-distribute even though the purchaser
might be a specially-created bankruptcy-remote subsidiary of the bank itself. The bank
may offer a line of credit to the purchaser to be activated in the event that the buyer
encounters difficulty in renewing its short-term securities.
Figure 1
European securitisation (1998 -2005; € billions)
Figure 2
Global collateralised debt obligation issuance
Cagr = 35%
+78%
320
0
50
100
150
200
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300
350
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
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The global market financial turmoil during the summer of 2007 was triggered by
developments in the rapidly growing sub-prime mortgage (SPM) market in the US. A
high proportion of such mortgage loans were securitised and also combined into
instruments such as CDOs. These in turn were rated by rating agencies although, in
hindsight, in a misleading way in that a CDO would be given a high rating based on only
the small proportion of loans within it that was low risk.
The mortgage-backed securities (MBS) and CDOs were purchased by banks around the
world, hedge funds, and conduits established by banks either for themselves or clients.
Such purchases were funded in the main by the issue of short term securities (e.g.
asset-backed commercial paper) and in some cases received lines of credit from banks
including banks initiating securitisation programmes.
Problems emerged at various times during 2007 as a result of a combination of factors:
a decline in house prices in the US, the impact of the earlier rise in US interest rates,
large-scale defaults on SPMs (during 2007 repossession in the US reached a thirty-seven
year high), and a sharp decline in the prices of mortgage-backed securities.
Above all, both the primary and secondary markets in SPM securities effectively closed
and concern developed over the exposure of some banks in the market. There was
uncertainty, for instance, about which banks were holding MBSs and CDOs. In particular,
some banks who were dependent on securitisation programmes encountered serious
funding problems because of all these uncertainties. Issuing banks and their conduits
faced both a liquidity constraint and a rise in the cost of funding as it became
increasingly difficult to roll-over short-term debt issues. Liquidity in the inter-bank
markets also weakened and a tiering of interest rates emerged during the summer.
Banks encountered funding difficulties because of their uncertain exposure to the
weakening MBS market, or because of their commitment to provide lines of credit to
MBS holders. There was also concern that some banks would be required to hold on their
balance sheets mortgage assets they had originally intended to securitise and sell.
Overall, there was a sharp movement away from the MBS market.
All of this created considerable market uncertainty in the summer months of 2007 which
lead to a sharp fall in many asset classes, considerable uncertainty as to the risk
exposure of banks, credit markets dried up and most especially those focussed on asset
backed securities, and liquidity dried up in the markets for MBSs and CDOs. Overall,
there was considerable uncertainty regarding the true value of credit instruments (partly
because the market had virtually ceased to function effectively) and the risk exposure of
banks. As a result, a loss of confidence developed in the value of all asset-backed
securities on a global basis. This was the general context of some banks (and notably
NR) facing funding problems.
The liquidity problem became serious because securitisation vehicles such as conduits
and SIVs were funding the acquisition of long-term mortgages (and other loans) by
issuing short-term debt instruments such as asset-backed commercial paper. As liquidity
dried up, banks could not finance their off-balance-sheet vehicles and were forced to
take assets back on to the balance sheet or hold on to assets they were planning to
securitise. This effectively amounts to a process of re-intermediation.
Although NR was not exposed to the US SPM market, it became caught up in all this
because of its business model: securitisation as a central strategy, and reliance on shortterm
money market funding. It faced several related problems: it could not securitise
and sell new mortgage assets and hence needed to keep assets on the balance sheet
that it had intended to sell, and it faced a sharp rise in interest rates in the money
market with the result that borrowing costs (even in the event that it could borrow at all)
rose above the yield on its mortgage assets.
The most serious dimension from a systemic point of view was the run on deposits at
NR. Clearly, statements to the effect that the bank was solvent did not convince
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depositors. In any case, a bank run can be rational if all depositors believe the bank is
solvent but also believe that all other depositors believe it is not.
THE RESCUE OPERATION
A traditional role of a central bank is to act as a lender-of-last-resort (LLR) to illiquid
solvent banks. In order to limit the moral hazard, this is done against good quality
collateral and at a penalty rate of interest. In order not to aggravate a temporary
liquidity problem of a bank by panicking depositors to withdraw funds, in the past in the
UK this has been done on a covert basis and without publicity at the time. The BOE now
judges (though this has been challenged by the European Commission) that current
requirements of transparency mean that any such support must be public.
In the UK, the ultimate responsibility for authorisation of support operations by the BOE
in a financial crisis rests with the Chancellor of the Exchequer (UK equivalent to the
minister of finance). There are two reasons for this. Firstly, it is a political
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