CHAPTER PREVIEW: In the seventeenth

CHAPTER PREVIEW: In the seventeenth century, the pace of technological innovation in Europe suddenly increased, and then it accelerated—particularly in Britain—in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. These changes did not immediately raise living standards, as it took a century or more for changes to spread to most of the economy.

However, beginning with a few industries (such as coal mining, iron works, potteries, metal products, and cotton spinning) concentrated mainly in the midlands and Scottish lowlands of Britain, new energy sources and processes began to be applied to production. By the end of the nineteenth century, these new energy sources and processes had increased output while cutting costs in important industries by tens or hundreds of times. The invention of the steam engine, railroad, steamship, and a wide range of factory and machine processes were the most striking innovations, but they were just a tiny number among thousands of innovations that gradually transformed economic life. What had really changed was that innovation became common and widespread, even expected, because a British culture of innovation gave people the
outlook and the intellectual and material tools to search for their own new ways of working. By the beginning of the nineteenth century, this culture of innovation had become widely established in Britain, and by the end of the century, it had spread throughout Europe.

INNOVATION AS THE SOURCE OF INDUSTRIAL GROWTH
The changes began in a handful of industries that were concentrated mainly in the northern and midlands counties of England; then extending to Scotland, Cornwall, and Wales; and later to Belgium, Switzerland, France, and other parts of Europe. These industries included producers of cotton textiles, iron and steel (including metal products from knives to buckles to engines and railways), and pottery; companies that mined coal and other minerals; and transportation fi rms that built and operated canals, railroads, steamboats, and steam engines. For all of these items, new technology changed one of the basic tenets of economics—the law of diminishing returns.

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Bab PREVIEW: Abad ke-17, laju inovasi teknologi di Eropa tiba-tiba meningkat, dan kemudian itu dipercepat — khususnya di Britain — pada abad kedelapan belas dan kesembilan belas. Perubahan ini tidak segera mengangkat standar hidup, seperti waktu abad atau lebih untuk perubahan menyebar ke sebagian besar ekonomi.

Namun, dimulai dengan beberapa industri (seperti pertambangan batu bara, besi tempa, potteries, produk logam, dan kapas berputar) terkonsentrasi pada midlands dan dataran rendah Skotlandia Britain, sumber-sumber energi baru dan proses mulai diterapkan untuk produksi. Pada akhir abad kesembilan belas, sumber-sumber energi baru dan proses ini telah meningkat output sementara pemotongan biaya dalam industri penting oleh puluhan atau ratusan kali. Penemuan mesin Uap, kereta api, kapal uap, dan berbagai proses pabrik dan mesin yang paling mencolok inovasi, tetapi mereka hanya sejumlah kecil antara ribuan inovasi yang secara bertahap berubah kehidupan ekonomi. Apa yang telah benar-benar berubah adalah bahwa inovasi menjadi Umum dan tersebar luas, bahkan diharapkan, karena budaya British inovasi yang memberi orang
alat outlook dan intelektual dan bahan untuk mencari sendiri cara baru untuk bekerja. Pada awal abad kesembilan belas, budaya ini inovasi telah menjadi secara luas didirikan di Britain, dan pada akhir abad, itu telah tersebar Europe.

inovasi seperti THE sumber dari pertumbuhan industri
perubahan dimulai di beberapa industri yang yang terkonsentrasi terutama di daerah-daerah utara dan midlands Inggris; kemudian memperluas ke Skotlandia, Cornwall dan Wales; dan kemudian ke Belgia, Swiss, Perancis, dan bagian lain dari Eropa. Industri ini termasuk produsen tekstil katun, besi dan baja (termasuk logam produk dari pisau ke gesper untuk mesin dan kereta api), dan tembikar; perusahaan yang ditambang batu bara dan mineral lainnya; dan transportasi fi rms yang dibangun dan dioperasikan kanal, rel kereta api, kapal uap dan mesin uap. Untuk semua item ini, teknologi baru mengubah salah satu prinsip-prinsip dasar ekonomi — kembali yg berkurang dari hukum.