Cross-Cultural Assessment of Abnormal BehaviorNot only is it important terjemahan - Cross-Cultural Assessment of Abnormal BehaviorNot only is it important Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

Cross-Cultural Assessment of Abnorm

Cross-Cultural Assessment of Abnormal Behavior
Not only is it important to have a reliable and valid system of classification of abnormal behaviors; it is also important to have a set of tools that can reliably and validly measure behaviors, feelings, and other psychological parameters re- lated to mental illness. Those tools may include questionnaires, interview pro- tocols, or standardized tasks that require some sort of behavior on the part of the test taker.
Needless to say, many of the issues that concern the valid and reliable mea- surement of any psychological variable cross-culturally for research purposes are also relevant to discussions of measurement tools for abnormality. For in- stance, it may be difficult to adequately transfer and use a psychological assess- ment that has been developed in one culture to another because of cultural- specific expressions of distress. Kleinman (1995) points out that many items of an assessment instrument may use wordings that are so culture-specific (for ex- ample, “feeling blue”) that directly translating them to another culture would be nonsensical. Draguns (1997) recently reviewed a number of issues in this area of psychological measurement, including stimulus equivalence, sample characteristics, comparability of constructs, structured self-reports, personal in- terviews, experimental apparatuses, and the impact of the examiner. These is- sues, and others, make valid and reliable measurement of pathology across cul- tures very difficult and complex.
A critical examination of how the tools in use fare across cultures provides a stark glimpse of reality. Traditional tools of clinical assessment in psychology are generally based on a standard definition of abnormality and use a standard set of classification criteria for evaluating problematic behavior. Therefore, the tools may have little meaning in cultures with varying definitions, however well translated into the native language; and they may mask or fail to capture culturally specific expressions of disorder (Marsella, 1979). The assessment problems encountered in studying schizophrenia and depression across cul- tures illustrate the limitations of traditional assessment methods.
The WHO studies described earlier, for example, used the Present State Ex- amination (PSE) to diagnose schizophrenia. Leff (1986) has commented on the ethnocentric bias of procedures such as the PSE and the Cornell Medical Index. In a psychiatric survey of the Yoruba in Nigeria, investigators had to supple- ment the PSE to include culture-specific complaints such as feeling “an ex- panded head and goose flesh.”



Standard diagnostic instruments to measure depressive disorder may also miss important cultural expressions of the disorder in Africans (Beiser, 1985) and Native Americans (Manson, Shore, & Bloom, 1985). In an extensive study of depression among Native Americans (Manson & Shore, 1981; Manson et al., 1985), the American Indian Depression Schedule (AIDS) was developed to as- sess and diagnose depressive illness. The investigators found that depression among the Hopi includes symptoms not measured by standard measures of de- pression such as the Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS) and the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia (SADS). These measures, based on di- agnostic criteria found in the DSM-III (American Psychiatric Association, 1987), failed to capture the short but acute dysphoric moods sometimes re- ported by the Hopi (Manson et al., 1985).
Concerning children, the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach, 2001) has been used to assess emotional and behavioral problems of children in various parts of the world, including Thailand, Kenya, and the United States (Weisz, Sigman, Weiss, & Mosk, 1993; Weisz et al., 1988); China (Su, Yang, Wan, Luo, & Li, 1999); Israel and Palestine (Auerbach, Yirmiya, & Kamel, 1996); and Australia, Jamaica, Greece, and nine other countries (Crijnen, Achenbach, & Verhulst, 1999). Generally, studies have found that U.S. children tend to exhibit higher levels of undercontrolled behaviors (“externalizing behav- iors” such as acting out and aggression) and lower levels of overcontrolled be- haviors (“internalizing” behaviors such as fearfulness and somaticizing) com- pared to children of other, particularly collectivistic, cultures. Thus, the CBCL (sometimes slightly modified) has been widely used in many cultures to assess problematic behaviors. However, a study that recruited American Indian (Dakota/Lakotan) parents to assess the acceptability and appropriateness of us- ing the CBCL in their culture found that some questions were difficult for the parents to answer because the questions did not take into account Dakotan/ Lakotan cultural values or traditions, and because the parents believed their re- sponses would be misinterpreted by members of the dominant culture who did not have a good understanding of the Dakotan/Lakotan culture (Oesterheld, 1997). This underscores again the importance of critically examining assess- ment tools for use cross-culturally.
Several researchers (Higginbotham, 1979; Lonner & Ibrahim, 1989; Marsella, 1979) have offered guidelines for developing measures to use in cross-cultural assessment of abnormal behavior. They suggest that sensitive as- sessment methods examine sociocultural norms of healthy adjustment as well as culturally based definitions of abnormality. Higginbotham also suggests the importance of examining culturally sanctioned systems of healing and their in- fluence on abnormal behavior. There is evidence that people whose problems match cultural categories of abnormality are more likely to seek folk healers (Leff, 1986). Failure to examine indigenous healing systems thus overlooks some expressions of disorder. Assessment of culturally sanctioned systems of cure should also enhance planning for treatment strategies, one of the primary goals of traditional assessment (Carson et al., 1988).



Other research has found that the cultural backgrounds of therapist and cli- ent may contribute to the perception and assessment of mental health. For in- stance, Li-Repac (1980) conducted a study to evaluate the role of culture in the diagnostic approach of therapists. In this study, Chinese American and Euro- pean American male clients were interviewed and videotaped, then rated by Chinese American and European American male therapists on their level of psychological functioning. The results showed an interaction effect between the cultural backgrounds of therapist and client on the therapists’ judgment of the clients. The Chinese American clients were rated as awkward, confused, and nervous by the European American therapists, but the same clients were rated as adaptable, honest, and friendly by the Chinese American therapists. In con- trast, European American clients were rated as sincere and easygoing by Euro- pean American therapists, but aggressive and rebellious by the Chinese Ameri- can therapists. Furthermore, Chinese American clients were judged to be more depressed and less socially capable by the European American therapists, and European American clients were judged to be more severely disturbed by the Chinese American therapists. These findings illustrate how judgments of appro- priate, healthy psychological functioning may differ depending on the cultural background and notions of normality of the person making the assessment.
Lopez (1989) has described two types of errors in making clinical assess- ments: overpathologizing and underpathologizing. Overpathologizing may occur when the clinician, unfamiliar with the client’s cultural background, in- correctly judges the client’s behavior as pathological when in fact the behaviors are normal variations to that individual’s culture. For instance, in some cul- tures, hearing voices from a deceased relative is considered normal. A clinician unaware of this feature of his or her client’s culture may overpathologize and mistakenly attribute this behavior to a manifestation of a psychotic disorder. Underpathologizing may occur when a clinician indiscriminantly explains the client’s behaviors as cultural—for example, attributing a withdrawn and flat emotional expression to a normal cultural communication style when in fact this behavior may be a symptom of depression.
Finally, one interesting topic in recent literature concerns language issues in psychological testing. In more and more cases today, test takers (such as patients or clients) have a first language and culture that differ from the diagnostician’s or clinician’s. Some writers (for example, Oquendo, 1996a, 1996b) have sug- gested that evaluation of such bilingual patients should really be done in both languages, preferably by a bilingual clinician or with the help of an interpreter trained in mental health issues. The reason, as was discussed in Chapter 10, is that cultural nuances may be encoded in language in ways that are not readily conveyed in translation. That is, translations of key psychological phrases and constructs from one language to another may give the closest semantic equiva- lent, but may not have exactly the same nuances, contextualized meanings, and associations. Also, Oquendo (1996a) suggests that patients may use their sec- ond language as a form of resistance to avoid intense emotions. Administration of tests and therapy bilingually may help to bridge this gap.



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Cross-Cultural Assessment of Abnormal BehaviorNot only is it important to have a reliable and valid system of classification of abnormal behaviors; it is also important to have a set of tools that can reliably and validly measure behaviors, feelings, and other psychological parameters re- lated to mental illness. Those tools may include questionnaires, interview pro- tocols, or standardized tasks that require some sort of behavior on the part of the test taker.Needless to say, many of the issues that concern the valid and reliable mea- surement of any psychological variable cross-culturally for research purposes are also relevant to discussions of measurement tools for abnormality. For in- stance, it may be difficult to adequately transfer and use a psychological assess- ment that has been developed in one culture to another because of cultural- specific expressions of distress. Kleinman (1995) points out that many items of an assessment instrument may use wordings that are so culture-specific (for ex- ample, “feeling blue”) that directly translating them to another culture would be nonsensical. Draguns (1997) recently reviewed a number of issues in this area of psychological measurement, including stimulus equivalence, sample characteristics, comparability of constructs, structured self-reports, personal in- terviews, experimental apparatuses, and the impact of the examiner. These is- sues, and others, make valid and reliable measurement of pathology across cul- tures very difficult and complex.A critical examination of how the tools in use fare across cultures provides a stark glimpse of reality. Traditional tools of clinical assessment in psychology are generally based on a standard definition of abnormality and use a standard set of classification criteria for evaluating problematic behavior. Therefore, the tools may have little meaning in cultures with varying definitions, however well translated into the native language; and they may mask or fail to capture culturally specific expressions of disorder (Marsella, 1979). The assessment problems encountered in studying schizophrenia and depression across cul- tures illustrate the limitations of traditional assessment methods.The WHO studies described earlier, for example, used the Present State Ex- amination (PSE) to diagnose schizophrenia. Leff (1986) has commented on the ethnocentric bias of procedures such as the PSE and the Cornell Medical Index. In a psychiatric survey of the Yoruba in Nigeria, investigators had to supple- ment the PSE to include culture-specific complaints such as feeling “an ex- panded head and goose flesh.” Standard diagnostic instruments to measure depressive disorder may also miss important cultural expressions of the disorder in Africans (Beiser, 1985) and Native Americans (Manson, Shore, & Bloom, 1985). In an extensive study of depression among Native Americans (Manson & Shore, 1981; Manson et al., 1985), the American Indian Depression Schedule (AIDS) was developed to as- sess and diagnose depressive illness. The investigators found that depression among the Hopi includes symptoms not measured by standard measures of de- pression such as the Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS) and the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia (SADS). These measures, based on di- agnostic criteria found in the DSM-III (American Psychiatric Association, 1987), failed to capture the short but acute dysphoric moods sometimes re- ported by the Hopi (Manson et al., 1985).Concerning children, the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach, 2001) has been used to assess emotional and behavioral problems of children in various parts of the world, including Thailand, Kenya, and the United States (Weisz, Sigman, Weiss, & Mosk, 1993; Weisz et al., 1988); China (Su, Yang, Wan, Luo, & Li, 1999); Israel and Palestine (Auerbach, Yirmiya, & Kamel, 1996); and Australia, Jamaica, Greece, and nine other countries (Crijnen, Achenbach, & Verhulst, 1999). Generally, studies have found that U.S. children tend to exhibit higher levels of undercontrolled behaviors (“externalizing behav- iors” such as acting out and aggression) and lower levels of overcontrolled be- haviors (“internalizing” behaviors such as fearfulness and somaticizing) com- pared to children of other, particularly collectivistic, cultures. Thus, the CBCL (sometimes slightly modified) has been widely used in many cultures to assess problematic behaviors. However, a study that recruited American Indian (Dakota/Lakotan) parents to assess the acceptability and appropriateness of us- ing the CBCL in their culture found that some questions were difficult for the parents to answer because the questions did not take into account Dakotan/ Lakotan cultural values or traditions, and because the parents believed their re- sponses would be misinterpreted by members of the dominant culture who did not have a good understanding of the Dakotan/Lakotan culture (Oesterheld, 1997). This underscores again the importance of critically examining assess- ment tools for use cross-culturally.Several researchers (Higginbotham, 1979; Lonner & Ibrahim, 1989; Marsella, 1979) have offered guidelines for developing measures to use in cross-cultural assessment of abnormal behavior. They suggest that sensitive as- sessment methods examine sociocultural norms of healthy adjustment as well as culturally based definitions of abnormality. Higginbotham also suggests the importance of examining culturally sanctioned systems of healing and their in- fluence on abnormal behavior. There is evidence that people whose problems match cultural categories of abnormality are more likely to seek folk healers (Leff, 1986). Failure to examine indigenous healing systems thus overlooks some expressions of disorder. Assessment of culturally sanctioned systems of cure should also enhance planning for treatment strategies, one of the primary goals of traditional assessment (Carson et al., 1988).



Other research has found that the cultural backgrounds of therapist and cli- ent may contribute to the perception and assessment of mental health. For in- stance, Li-Repac (1980) conducted a study to evaluate the role of culture in the diagnostic approach of therapists. In this study, Chinese American and Euro- pean American male clients were interviewed and videotaped, then rated by Chinese American and European American male therapists on their level of psychological functioning. The results showed an interaction effect between the cultural backgrounds of therapist and client on the therapists’ judgment of the clients. The Chinese American clients were rated as awkward, confused, and nervous by the European American therapists, but the same clients were rated as adaptable, honest, and friendly by the Chinese American therapists. In con- trast, European American clients were rated as sincere and easygoing by Euro- pean American therapists, but aggressive and rebellious by the Chinese Ameri- can therapists. Furthermore, Chinese American clients were judged to be more depressed and less socially capable by the European American therapists, and European American clients were judged to be more severely disturbed by the Chinese American therapists. These findings illustrate how judgments of appro- priate, healthy psychological functioning may differ depending on the cultural background and notions of normality of the person making the assessment.
Lopez (1989) has described two types of errors in making clinical assess- ments: overpathologizing and underpathologizing. Overpathologizing may occur when the clinician, unfamiliar with the client’s cultural background, in- correctly judges the client’s behavior as pathological when in fact the behaviors are normal variations to that individual’s culture. For instance, in some cul- tures, hearing voices from a deceased relative is considered normal. A clinician unaware of this feature of his or her client’s culture may overpathologize and mistakenly attribute this behavior to a manifestation of a psychotic disorder. Underpathologizing may occur when a clinician indiscriminantly explains the client’s behaviors as cultural—for example, attributing a withdrawn and flat emotional expression to a normal cultural communication style when in fact this behavior may be a symptom of depression.
Finally, one interesting topic in recent literature concerns language issues in psychological testing. In more and more cases today, test takers (such as patients or clients) have a first language and culture that differ from the diagnostician’s or clinician’s. Some writers (for example, Oquendo, 1996a, 1996b) have sug- gested that evaluation of such bilingual patients should really be done in both languages, preferably by a bilingual clinician or with the help of an interpreter trained in mental health issues. The reason, as was discussed in Chapter 10, is that cultural nuances may be encoded in language in ways that are not readily conveyed in translation. That is, translations of key psychological phrases and constructs from one language to another may give the closest semantic equiva- lent, but may not have exactly the same nuances, contextualized meanings, and associations. Also, Oquendo (1996a) suggests that patients may use their sec- ond language as a form of resistance to avoid intense emotions. Administration of tests and therapy bilingually may help to bridge this gap.



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Penilaian Lintas Budaya Perilaku Abnormal
Tidak hanya itu penting untuk memiliki sistem yang handal dan valid klasifikasi perilaku abnormal; itu juga penting untuk memiliki satu set alat yang handal dan sah dapat mengukur perilaku, perasaan, dan parameter psikologis lain yang terkait dalam penyakit mental. Alat mereka mungkin termasuk kuesioner, tocols wawancara pro, atau tugas standar yang memerlukan semacam perilaku pada bagian dari pengambil tes.
Tak perlu dikatakan, banyak masalah yang menyangkut surement-langkah yang valid dan terpercaya dari setiap variabel lintas psikologis -culturally untuk penelitian tujuan juga relevan dengan diskusi alat pengukuran untuk kelainan. Untuk sikap di-, mungkin sulit untuk mentransfer memadai dan menggunakan asesmen psikologis yang telah dikembangkan dalam satu budaya yang lain karena ekspresi tertentu kultural dari marabahaya. Kleinman (1995) menunjukkan bahwa banyak item instrumen penilaian dapat menggunakan susunan kata yang begitu budaya spesifik (untuk Contohnya, "merasa biru") yang secara langsung menerjemahkan mereka ke budaya lain akan masuk akal. Draguns (1997) baru-baru ini meninjau sejumlah isu di daerah ini pengukuran psikologis, termasuk stimulus kesetaraan, karakteristik sampel, komparabilitas konstruksi, laporan diri terstruktur, terviews di- pribadi, aparat eksperimental, dan dampak dari pemeriksa. Ini adalah- menggugat, dan lain-lain, membuat pengukuran yang valid dan terpercaya patologi di cul- membangun struktur yang sangat sulit dan kompleks.
Pemeriksaan kritis tentang bagaimana alat yang digunakan tarif lintas budaya memberikan sekilas gamblang tentang realitas. Alat tradisional dari penilaian klinis dalam psikologi umumnya didasarkan pada definisi standar kelainan dan menggunakan satu set standar kriteria klasifikasi untuk mengevaluasi perilaku bermasalah. Oleh karena itu, alat mungkin memiliki sedikit makna dalam budaya dengan berbagai definisi, namun juga diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa asli; dan mereka dapat menutupi atau gagal untuk menangkap ekspresi budaya spesifik gangguan (Marsella, 1979). Masalah yang dihadapi dalam penilaian belajar skizofrenia dan depresi di cul- membangun struktur menggambarkan keterbatasan metode penilaian tradisional.
Studi WHO dijelaskan sebelumnya, misalnya, digunakan Present Negara Mantan aminasi (PSE) untuk mendiagnosis skizofrenia. Leff (1986) telah berkomentar tentang bias etnosentris prosedur seperti PSE dan Indeks Medis Cornell. Dalam sebuah survei kejiwaan dari Yoruba di Nigeria, peneliti harus Tambahan ment PSE untuk memasukkan keluhan budaya-spesifik seperti perasaan "sebuah panded kepala dan angsa daging mantan." Instrumen diagnostik Standar untuk mengukur gangguan depresi mungkin juga budaya kehilangan penting ekspresi dari gangguan di Afrika (Beiser, 1985) dan penduduk asli Amerika (Manson, Shore, & Bloom, 1985). Dalam sebuah studi ekstensif depresi di antara penduduk asli Amerika (Manson & Shore, 1981;. Manson et al, 1985), Indian Amerika Depresi Jadwal (AIDS) dikembangkan untuk F- sess dan mendiagnosa penyakit depresi. Para peneliti menemukan bahwa depresi antara Hopi termasuk gejala tidak diukur dengan ukuran standar pression de- seperti Jadwal Diagnostic Interview (DIS) dan Jadwal Affective Disorders dan Skizofrenia (SADS). Langkah-langkah ini, berdasarkan kriteria di- agnostik ditemukan dalam DSM-III (American Psychiatric Association, 1987), gagal menangkap suasana hati dysphoric pendek tapi akut kadang-kadang re- porting oleh Hopi (Manson et al., 1985). Mengenai anak , Checklist Perilaku Anak (CBCL; Achenbach, 2001) telah digunakan untuk menilai masalah emosional dan perilaku anak-anak di berbagai belahan dunia, termasuk Thailand, Kenya, dan Amerika Serikat (Weisz, Sigman, Weiss, & Mosk, 1993 ; Weisz et al, 1988).; Cina (Su, Yang, Wan, Luo, & Li, 1999); Israel dan Palestina (Auerbach, Yirmiya, & Kamel, 1996); dan Australia, Jamaika, Yunani, dan sembilan negara lainnya (Crijnen, Achenbach, & Verhulst, 1999). Umumnya, penelitian telah menemukan bahwa anak-anak AS cenderung menunjukkan tingkat yang lebih tinggi dari perilaku undercontrolled ("eksternalisasi iors prilaku" seperti bertindak keluar dan agresi) dan tingkat yang lebih rendah dari overcontrolled menjadi- haviors ("internalisasi" perilaku seperti rasa takut dan somaticizing) com - dikupas untuk anak budaya lain, terutama kolektif,. Dengan demikian, CBCL (kadang-kadang sedikit dimodifikasi) telah banyak digunakan dalam banyak kebudayaan untuk menilai perilaku bermasalah. Namun, sebuah studi yang direkrut American Indian (Dakota / Lakotan) orang tua untuk menilai akseptabilitas dan ketepatan kita-ing CBCL dalam budaya mereka menemukan bahwa beberapa pertanyaan yang sulit bagi orang tua untuk menjawab karena pertanyaan tidak memperhitungkan Dakotan / nilai-nilai budaya Lakotan atau tradisi, dan karena orang tua percaya sponses mereka akan disalahartikan oleh anggota budaya dominan yang tidak memiliki pemahaman yang baik tentang budaya Dakotan / Lakotan (Oesterheld, 1997). Ini menggarisbawahi lagi pentingnya kritis memeriksa alat asesmen untuk digunakan lintas-budaya. Beberapa peneliti (Higginbotham, 1979; Lonner & Ibrahim, 1989; Marsella, 1979) telah menawarkan pedoman untuk mengembangkan langkah-langkah untuk digunakan dalam penilaian lintas budaya yang abnormal perilaku. Mereka menunjukkan bahwa metode asesmen sensitif memeriksa norma-norma sosial budaya penyesuaian yang sehat serta definisi berdasarkan budaya kelainan. Higginbotham juga menunjukkan pentingnya memeriksa sistem budaya sanksi penyembuhan dan fluence di- mereka pada perilaku abnormal. Ada bukti bahwa orang-orang yang masalah sesuai kategori budaya kelainan lebih mungkin untuk mencari penyembuh rakyat (Leff, 1986). Kegagalan untuk memeriksa sistem penyembuhan adat sehingga menghadap beberapa ekspresi dari gangguan. Penilaian sistem budaya sanksi penyembuhan juga harus meningkatkan perencanaan strategi pengobatan, salah satu tujuan utama dari penilaian tradisional (Carson et al., 1988). Penelitian lain telah menemukan bahwa latar belakang budaya dari terapis dan ent cli- dapat berkontribusi pada persepsi dan penilaian kesehatan mental. Untuk sikap in, Li-Repac (1980) melakukan studi untuk mengevaluasi peran budaya dalam pendekatan diagnostik terapis. Dalam studi ini, Amerika Cina dan Euro pean klien laki-laki Amerika diwawancarai dan direkam, kemudian dinilai oleh Cina terapis laki-laki Amerika Amerika dan Eropa pada tingkat dari fungsi psikologis. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan efek interaksi antara latar belakang budaya dari terapis dan klien pada penghakiman terapis 'dari klien. Klien Amerika Cina dinilai sebagai canggung, bingung, dan gugup oleh terapis Amerika Eropa, tapi klien yang sama dinilai sebagai beradaptasi, jujur, dan ramah oleh terapis Amerika Cina. Dalam trast con, klien Amerika Eropa dinilai sebagai tulus dan santai dengan Euro pean terapis Amerika, tapi agresif dan pemberontak oleh Ameri- Cina bisa terapis. Selanjutnya, klien Amerika China dinilai lebih tertekan dan kurang mampu secara sosial oleh terapis Amerika Eropa, dan klien Amerika Eropa yang dinilai akan lebih parah terganggu oleh terapis Amerika Cina. Temuan ini menggambarkan bagaimana penilaian dari yang sepatutnya, fungsi psikologis yang sehat mungkin berbeda tergantung pada latar belakang budaya dan gagasan normalitas dari orang yang membuat penilaian. Lopez (1989) telah dijelaskan dua jenis kesalahan dalam membuat sistim penilai- an klinis: overpathologizing dan underpathologizing. Overpathologizing dapat terjadi ketika dokter, terbiasa dengan latar belakang budaya klien, In- benar menghakimi perilaku klien sebagai patologis padahal sebenarnya perilaku variasi normal budaya yang individu. Misalnya, di beberapa cul- membangun struktur, mendengar suara-suara dari seorang kerabat almarhum dianggap normal. Seorang dokter tidak menyadari fitur ini budaya nya klien mungkin overpathologize dan keliru atribut perilaku ini untuk manifestasi dari gangguan psikotik. Underpathologizing dapat terjadi ketika seorang dokter indiscriminantly menjelaskan perilaku klien sebagai contoh budaya-untuk, menghubungkan ekspresi emosional ditarik dan datar untuk gaya komunikasi budaya yang normal padahal sebenarnya perilaku ini mungkin merupakan gejala depresi. Akhirnya, salah satu topik menarik dalam literatur terbaru kekhawatiran masalah bahasa dalam tes psikologi. Dalam kasus lebih dan lebih hari ini, pengambil tes (seperti pasien atau klien) memiliki bahasa pertama dan budaya yang berbeda dari diagnosa atau klinisi. Beberapa penulis (misalnya, Oquendo, 1996a, 1996b) telah nyarankan- gested bahwa evaluasi pasien bilingual tersebut harus benar-benar dilakukan dalam dua bahasa, sebaiknya oleh dokter bilingual atau dengan bantuan seorang penerjemah terlatih dalam masalah kesehatan mental. Alasannya, seperti yang dibahas dalam Bab 10, adalah bahwa nuansa budaya dapat dikodekan dalam bahasa dengan cara yang tidak mudah disampaikan dalam terjemahan. Artinya, terjemahan dari frase psikologis kunci dan konstruksi dari satu bahasa ke bahasa lain mungkin memberikan ekivalen semantik terdekat dipinjamkan, tetapi mungkin tidak memiliki persis nuansa yang sama, makna kontekstual, dan asosiasi. Juga, Oquendo (1996a) menunjukkan bahwa pasien mungkin menggunakan bahasa ond detik- mereka sebagai bentuk perlawanan untuk menghindari emosi yang intens. Administrasi tes dan terapi bilingual dapat membantu untuk menjembatani kesenjangan ini.















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